Prehistory and History of the Iberian Peninsula

Posted on Oct 21, 2024 in Geography

Prehistory and the Old Age in the Iberian Peninsula

Hominization Process: New Findings

Prehistory encompasses the period from the origin of humans until the advent of writing. A central theme in archaeology is the process of humanization, tracing the evolution leading to Homo sapiens. Prehistorians analyze fossils and tools to understand this process.

Hominization originated in Africa. Australopithecus, dating back 5-6 million years, evolved into Homo habilis around 2.5 million years ago. Homo habilis represents the first human species, paving the way for more complex evolution. Homo ergaster and Homo erectus migrated to Europe and Asia, potentially following animal herds.

The First Humans in the Iberian Peninsula

The earliest human remains in the Iberian Peninsula date back 1.2 million years. Key discoveries were made at the Atapuerca archaeological site in Burgos, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. These include the Sima de los Huesos, Gran Dolina, and Sima del Elefante.

The Gran Dolina yielded fossils of six individuals (four children and two adults) who lived 800,000 years ago. Their unique features led to the classification of a new species, Homo antecessor. The Sima de los Huesos contains numerous fossils attributed to Homo heidelbergensis, a species that lived between Homo antecessor and Homo neanderthalensis.

The last two human species in the peninsula were Homo neanderthalensis (present for about 95,000 years) and Homo sapiens (arriving 35,000 years ago). Homo neanderthalensis did not contribute to the subsequent evolution of Homo sapiens. Homo sapiens possessed physical characteristics similar to modern humans, created complex tools, and expressed beliefs through rituals and cave paintings (e.g., Altamira).

The Roman Peoples: Phoenicians, Greeks, and Carthaginians

Following the Paleolithic and the evolution of Homo sapiens sapiens, the Neolithic period began in the Iberian Peninsula around 5000-3000 BC. Agricultural and pastoral communities from the Middle East established permanent settlements.

The Metal Age, associated with Megalithic culture, started with the Copper Age (around 3000 BC) and continued with the Bronze Age (around 2000 BC).

Around 1200 BC, the Celts, an Indo-European group, initiated a series of invasions. This marked the beginning of Protohistory, the period between the Indo-European invasions (1200 BC) and the Roman invasion (2nd century BC). Abundant archaeological remains and written accounts from Greek and Roman authors provide insights into the peninsula’s inhabitants during this time:

  • Tartessos: A flourishing civilization in southwestern Spain during the first half of the first millennium BC. Known for mining, trade, agriculture, and livestock. Its political structure included a monarchy, aristocracy, and city-states. Tartessos declined in the late 6th century BC, potentially due to invasion or internal conflicts.
  • Iberians: Located in the Mediterranean region and southern peninsula. They engaged in agriculture, livestock, trade, and mining. Their society was hierarchical, ruled by warlords or kings. Iberian art shows Greek influence, exemplified by the Lady of Elche bust.
  • Peoples of the Center and West: Inhabited the Plateau and western peninsula. They experienced limited influence from Mediterranean colonists but significant Celtic presence. Their economy relied on agriculture and livestock. They lived in fortified villages. Notable artifacts include the boars of the Vettones, linked to cattle cults (e.g., the Bulls of Guisando).
  • Peoples of the North: (Galaicos, Astures, Cantabrians, Várdulos, Vascones) Settled from Galicia to the Pyrenees. They were less developed due to limited acculturation. Their economy focused on livestock, gathering, fishing, and some agriculture. Archaeological highlights include the “castros”, circular settlements built by the Galicians.

Colonization of the Iberian Peninsula

During the first millennium BC, the Mediterranean zone experienced the arrival of colonizers from the eastern Mediterranean: Phoenicians, Greeks, and Carthaginians. Their primary motive was economic, seeking metals and other resources.

The Phoenicians, from present-day Lebanon, arrived in the 9th century BC and established colonies in the south, notably Gadir (Cádiz).

The Greeks, from the region of Phocaea, founded colonies such as Massilia (Marseille), Emporion (Ampurias), Rhode (Roses), and Mainake (Málaga) between the 8th and 5th centuries BC.

The Carthaginians, from Carthage (in modern Tunisia), established colonies like Ebussus (Ibiza), Akra Leuke (Alicante), and Carthago Nova (Cartagena) along the Mediterranean trade route. In the 3rd century BC, they expanded their control during the Punic Wars against Rome.

Colonization significantly impacted the Iberian Peninsula, particularly the Mediterranean coast and the Guadalquivir valley. It introduced new crops, pottery, coinage, the alphabet, and artistic styles.

Roman Conquest and Romanization

The Conquest

The Roman conquest of the Iberian Peninsula began in the 3rd century BC and concluded in the 1st century BC (218 BC-19 BC). It unfolded in three main stages:

  1. Occupation of the Mediterranean coast and the Ebro and Guadalquivir valleys (218-197 BC): Triggered by the Second Punic War. Rome expelled the Carthaginians from the peninsula.
  2. Conquest of the central and western peninsula (150-133 BC): Romans faced resistance from indigenous peoples, including the Lusitanian Wars led by Viriathus and the resistance of the Arevaci at Numantia.
  3. Conquest of the northern peninsula (29-19 BC): Under Emperor Augustus, the Romans subdued the Galicians, Astures, Cantabrians, and Basques.

Romanization

Romanization refers to the process of adapting the indigenous peoples to Roman political, economic, social, and cultural structures. It was most pronounced in the Mediterranean coast and Guadalquivir valley, less so in the north. Key aspects of Romanization included:

  • Latin became the common language, influencing the development of Castilian, Catalan, Galician, and Portuguese.
  • Roman law was implemented, shaping legal systems and concepts of the state.
  • Roman polytheistic religion was introduced, followed by the spread of Christianity in the 1st and 2nd centuries AD.

Romanization reached its peak in 212 AD when Emperor Caracalla granted Roman citizenship to all free inhabitants of the empire.

Hispania under Roman Rule

Hispania became a highly Romanized province. Several emperors were born there, including Trajan, Hadrian, and Theodosius. Notable writers like Lucan, Martial, and Quintilian, and philosophers like Seneca, also hailed from Hispania.

The Barbarian Invasions and the Visigothic Kingdom

The Visigoths

In the 5th century AD, Germanic invasions led to the fall of the Western Roman Empire (476 AD). In 409, the Suebi, Vandals, Alans, and Visigoths entered the Iberian Peninsula. The Visigoths eventually established a kingdom with its capital in Toletum (Toledo), creating the first unified and independent political state in the peninsula.

Visigothic Institutions

  • Elective Monarchy: Notable kings included Leovigild (conquered the Suebi kingdom), Suintila (expelled the Byzantines), Reccared (converted to Catholicism), and Recceswinth (compiled the Liber Iudiciorum, a legal code).
  • Aula Regia: Advised the king on political, military, and judicial matters.
  • Officium Palatinum: Managed the royal palace.
  • Councils of Toledo: Assemblies that addressed religious and civil issues, including the election of kings and legislation. Important councils include the Third Council of Toledo (religious unification under Reccared) and the Eighth Council of Toledo (legal unification under Recceswinth).

Visigothic Culture

The Church played a crucial role in preserving and transmitting Greco-Roman culture. Church schools maintained intellectual activity. Isidore of Seville was a prominent intellectual figure, known for his work Etymologies, which summarized the knowledge of his time.