Prehistory to Modern Age: A Journey Through History
1. Prehistory
Prehistory spans a vast period, from the emergence of humans to the invention of writing.
1.1 The Origin of Mankind
Hominid evolution involved increasingly upright posture, larger cranial capacity, mastery of fire, and language development.
1.2 The Stone Age
This era is divided into two periods:
- Paleolithic: Nomadic hunter-gatherers lived outdoors in huts or caves, forming tribes, controlling fire, and developing beliefs like ancestor worship and artistic expression.
- Neolithic: The transition from hunter-gatherer to producer began in the Middle East. Key innovations included the advent of agriculture, livestock domestication, new technologies, and sedentary lifestyles.
1.3 The Metal Age
Metallurgy emerged between Iran and Anatolia in the late Neolithic. The Metal Age comprises the Copper Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age, characterized by:
- Metal tools and weapons.
- Animal-powered transport and the invention of the wheel.
- Social stratification based on wealth.
- New artistic expressions like megalithic architecture.
2. The Ancient Age
Beginning with the invention of writing (3500 BC) and ending with the fall of the Western Roman Empire (476 AD), this era features two major civilizations:
2.1 Urban Civilizations
Emerging in the fourth millennium BC in Egypt and Mesopotamia, these civilizations thrived in river valleys and plains. They were characterized by:
- Agricultural surplus enabling food storage and trade.
- Hierarchical societies with rulers, soldiers, and priests.
- Advanced cultures facilitated by writing.
- Art serving kings and pharaohs.
2.2 Classical Civilizations
Greek (3000 BC-146 BC) and Roman (753 BC – 476 AD) civilizations are considered “classical” as they served as models for later periods. Both developed around the Mediterranean Sea, but with different political organizations:
- Greece comprised independent city-states (poleis).
- Rome centrally controlled a vast territory divided into provinces.
Key developments include Athenian democracy (10th century BC), Roman Republic (11th century BC) and Empire (1st century BC – 5th century AD), social stratification (including slavery), craft and trade economies, and significant cultural contributions, including Roman language (Latin), law, and art emphasizing beauty and architecture.
4. The Modern Age
Beginning in the late 15th century, the Modern Age was marked by events like the fall of Constantinople (1453), the spread of printing, and the discovery of the Americas (1492). It ended with the French Revolution (1789).
4.1 Geographical Discoveries
Driven by the need for new trade routes to Asia, the search for gold, technological advancements (compass, astrolabe, caravels, galleons, and improved cartography), and the adventurous spirit, Europeans explored new lands. Portugal explored Africa’s coast and eastward to Asia, while Castile, following Columbus’s westward route, discovered America. The Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) divided the world between Portugal and Castile. These discoveries had significant economic, social, and cultural consequences, including increased wealth, new crops, shifted trade routes, demographic shifts, and cultural exchange.
4.2 A Time of Change
The Modern Age witnessed significant changes:
- Economic: The rise of capitalism, driven by the bourgeoisie and American gold and silver, and new forms of production like cottage industry.
- Social: A class society with evolving dynamics: nobility retaining privileges, the bourgeoisie gaining influence, and peasants gaining freedom.
- Political: Western European monarchies becoming authoritarian, centralizing power, building administrations and armies, controlling justice, and using diplomacy.
- Intellectual: Geocentrism giving way to humanism, placing humans at the center of the universe.
- Religious: The Protestant Reformation, initiated by Martin Luther, challenging the Church and dividing Christianity.