Primo de Rivera Dictatorship in Spain (1923-1930)
Primo de Rivera Dictatorship (1923-1930)
Causes of the Dictatorship
Primo de Rivera’s dictatorship was supported by sectors seeking a solution to Spain’s political and social unrest. The parliamentary system was unstable, there was fear of a social revolution, and separatist tendencies threatened the country’s unity. Rivera aimed to replace the outdated regime, but his actions hindered democratization and aimed to prevent accountability for the Annual Disaster.
Establishment of the Dictatorship
Initially, a military directory ruled until 1925, when civilian figures like José Calvo Sotelo (Finance), El Conde de Guadalhorce (Public Works), and Eduard Aunós (Labor) joined the government. The directory’s first actions demonstrated its dictatorial nature:
- Suspension of the constitution
- Dissolution of legislative chambers
- Removal of civilian authorities
- Prohibition of political parties and trade unions
Statutes were drafted, municipal and provincial councils were dissolved and replaced by boards of taxpayers. In collaboration with France, the successful Alhucemas landing in 1925 took place. From 1926, the regime began to institutionalize. In 1927, a National Consultative Assembly was created, composed of appointed members from corporations and public institutions. The Patriotic Union, a single party comprising Maurists, Carlists, and other right-wing extremists, was established.
Economic and Social Policies
The dictatorship benefited from the favorable international economic climate of the 1920s. The government focused on nationalizing key economic sectors and state intervention, particularly in public works. A decree was passed to protect domestic industry, and monopolies were granted, such as the telephone monopoly to the Compañía Telefónica Nacional de España and the exclusive import, refining, distribution, and sale of oil to CAMPSA. In agriculture, irrigation was promoted through the creation of hydrographic confederations. The 1929 International Exhibition in Barcelona led to significant urban development, including the remodeling of Montjuïc. The Ibero-American Exhibition was also held in Seville in 1929.
National corporatization was established, regulating labor disputes through joint committees of employers and workers. This system aimed to regulate wages and working conditions. While the UGT (led by Largo Caballero) viewed it favorably, anarcho-syndicalists and communists were persecuted and forced underground.
Anti-Catalan Policies
Initially, much of the Catalan bourgeoisie supported the coup. However, on September 23rd, a decree suppressing separatism was issued. The Mancomunitat was dissolved in 1925, and several Catalan institutions were closed. Demonstrations and public use of the Catalan flag were banned. Press censorship was imposed, and the publication of books and newspapers was restricted. Even FC Barcelona faced repercussions when the stadium was closed for six months following public booing of the Spanish anthem during a game.
Opposition to the Dictatorship
Opposition came from various groups, including dynastic party leaders, republicans, Catalan nationalists, communists, anarchists, sectors of the army, and intellectuals. Military conspiracies, such as the “Sanjuanada” in 1926, emerged. The closure of universities led to student protests and the formation of the Federación Universitaria Española (FUE), a republican student union. Intellectuals like Unamuno, Ortega y Gasset, Blasco Ibáñez, and Menéndez Pidal led the opposition, signing a manifesto in 1924 protesting the repression of Catalan language and culture.
The most persistent conflict arose with republicans and Catalan nationalists. The Republican opposition remained active, forming the Republican Alliance, which united various republican factions. In Catalonia, repressive measures led to a distancing of Catalan society, including sectors that initially welcomed the dictatorship, like the Regionalist League. A significant event was the attempted armed invasion of Catalonia from Prats de Molló in 1926, led by Francesc Macià. French authorities thwarted the attempt, arresting and trying Macià, who was then exiled to France. This trial became a public condemnation of the dictatorship and elevated Macià’s status as a republican leader.
The CNT, FAI, and PSOE opposed the dictatorship and advocated for a republic.
The Fall of the Dictator
King Alfonso XIII and his advisors recognized that the dictatorship threatened the monarchy. In January 1930, the King withdrew his support, leading to Primo de Rivera’s resignation. General Berenguer was appointed to organize elections and restore constitutional normality. Republicans, Catalan nationalists, and leftist PSOE members signed the Pact of San Sebastián in 1930, outlining a program for the elections. They committed to recognizing the autonomy of Catalonia, the Basque Country, and Galicia under the new regime.
Berenguer failed to fulfill his task and was replaced by Admiral Aznar in 1931. The government then decided to call for elections.