Primo de Rivera Dictatorship: Rise, Fall, and Legacy in Spain
1. Introduction: The Primo de Rivera Dictatorship
The Primo de Rivera dictatorship arose from the bankruptcy of the Liberal State. The regime imposed after the 1923 coup marked the culmination of a crisis, evident since the Tragic Week and worsening after the 1917 crisis. Between 1922 and 1923, Alfonso XIII’s monarchy faced two options: democratization or authoritarianism. Dictatorships were prevalent in 1920s Europe, particularly in less-developed agricultural nations. Spain was no exception. On September 13, 1923, General Primo de Rivera, Captain General of Catalonia, launched a coup. The García Prieto government resigned the next day, and the king ceded power to Primo de Rivera. The dictatorship’s solutions to some problems created new ones, leading to its downfall, followed by the monarchy’s collapse and the Second Republic’s rise. General Primo de Rivera, a military figure lacking political expertise but possessing strong instincts, was spontaneous, populist, and patriotic. He viewed himself as a regeneracionista, aiming to revitalize material development, purify political corruption, and establish a temporary, messianic dictatorship to implement regenerative projects. His goal was a more authentic liberalism after correcting its flaws. However, addressing some issues led to new challenges, ultimately ending the dictatorship and paving the way for the Republic.
2. Causes of the Coup
Understanding the 1923 coup requires examining the political context. Internationally, the Bolshevik revolution’s triumph instilled fear of revolutionary contagion among the middle classes. In 1921, the Communist Party of Spain emerged from a PSOE division. The crisis of democracy and the rise of Italian Fascism, alongside authoritarian regimes in Central Europe, Japan, and the Balkans, further contributed to the atmosphere. Hitler’s shadow loomed over Germany after his failed Munich putsch. Only France, Britain, and the United States championed democracy. In Spain, the Restoration system’s decline, social unrest, and the military’s growing political role (evident in the 1917 crisis) were key factors. The Annual Disaster, a military humiliation reminiscent of 1898, fueled public and military resentment towards civilian authority. Political corruption, rising prices, and the Moroccan conflict prompted calls for drastic solutions, echoing Joaquín Costa’s “iron surgeon” concept. Finally, the rise of peripheral nationalism, particularly in Catalonia and the Basque Country, alarmed the army and right-wing groups.
3. The Coup of September 12
By spring 1923, a coup seemed imminent. Supported by the Catalan bourgeoisie, who sought relief from anarchist terrorism, Primo de Rivera launched his coup. The king’s silence signaled approval. Alfonso XIII returned to Madrid, and Primo de Rivera formed a new government.
3.1. The Military Directory (September 1923 – December 1925)
The Military Directory, composed entirely of officers, implemented the following measures:
- Manifesto to the Spanish: A declaration of intent outlining policy goals, including combating despotism, restoring public order, and regeneration.
- Dismantling Institutions: The army controlled all aspects of life. A state of war was declared, and civilian governors were replaced by military personnel. The Constitution was suspended, and Congress and the Senate were dissolved. Constitutional guarantees, including habeas corpus, freedom of association, assembly, and information, were suspended. Press censorship was imposed.
- Reform of Administration: The 1924 Municipal Statute aimed to empower municipalities and decentralize administration but proved ineffective due to excessive military control.
- Addressing Public Order: Demonstrations were banned, and censorship was enforced. Repression targeted nationalists, intellectuals, the press, and the CNT. The Somaten, a paramilitary corps, was promoted.
- Nationalism: Primo de Rivera suppressed Catalan symbols and language, leading to the withdrawal of support from the Catalan bourgeoisie and the radicalization of nationalist groups.
3.2. The Civil Directory (December 1925 – January 1930)
The resolution of the Moroccan problem through the Alhucemas Bay landing (1925) and Abd-el-Krim’s surrender (1927) boosted Primo de Rivera’s standing. He then established the Civil Directory. Key elements of the dictatorship’s policy were the Patriotic Union and the National Consultative Assembly.
- Patriotic Union: A movement aiming to unite people around monarchical and democratic ideals. Its diverse composition led to internal conflicts and eventual break with the regime.
- National Consultative Assembly: Tasked with drafting a new constitution, its efforts ultimately proved unsuccessful.
4. Economy, Society, and Culture
The dictatorship’s economic success stemmed from the global economic boom of the 1920s, social peace, and short-term policies like protectionism, public works promotion, and monopolies (e.g., National Telephone Company of Spain). The creation of Water Boards was a significant achievement. The expansion and improvement of communications, particularly railways, also contributed to economic growth. The Universal Exposition of Barcelona and the Ibero-American Exposition of Seville (both in 1929) showcased Spain’s progress. The Corporate Organization of Work, modeled after Italy’s fascist corporate state, faced criticism from both right and left. Education and culture received a boost, but restrictions on academic freedom led to conflicts with intellectuals and students.
5. Return to Parliamentary Monarchy (1930-1931)
The 1929 crisis, triggered by the Wall Street Crash, exposed the fragility of the dictatorship’s economic achievements. Political and social forces mobilized, accelerating its decline. An army revolt in 1929 further highlighted discontent. King Alfonso XIII appointed General Damaso Berenguer to restore the pre-1923 system, but his hesitant approach fueled discontent. The Republican movement gained momentum, uniting diverse political groups. The Pact of San Sebastián (August 1930) established a revolutionary committee to form a provisional government. Failed military pronouncements in Jaca and Cuatro Vientos further bolstered republican sentiment. Berenguer resigned in February 1931. Admiral Aznar’s government, tasked with managing the transition, called for municipal elections in April 1931. While monarchists won more councilors overall, republicans triumphed in major cities. The Republican flag was raised, signaling the end of the dictatorship and the monarchy.
Conclusion
The Primo de Rivera dictatorship ultimately failed to achieve its goals. Only the Moroccan problem was resolved, albeit contrary to initial intentions. While order was temporarily restored, underlying tensions remained. Despotism persisted within the dictatorship itself. The regime’s improvements in infrastructure, while positive, also empowered forces that would contribute to its downfall. The dictatorship served as a precedent for Franco’s regime in its emphasis on military values, nationalistic movements, and the demonization of opposing ideologies. While paving the way for the Second Republic, it also sowed the seeds of its destruction.