Primo de Rivera’s Coup and Dictatorship in Spain (1923-1930)
The Crisis of the Constitutional Regime and the Rise of Primo de Rivera
The Summer of 1917 and the Failure of Reform
The crisis in the summer of 1917 accelerated the decline of the constitutional regime established in 1876. The coalition government of 1918 failed to reform the system, contain inflation, and restore social order. This led to a five-year period (1919-1923) of Conservative majority governments characterized by high social conflict, suspension of constitutional guarantees, the military’s involvement in politics, the strengthening of laborers, peasant revolts in Tuscany (the Triennium Bolshevik), and the rise of political violence.
The Disaster of Annual and the Rise of Primo de Rivera
The Disaster of Annual (July 1921) in Morocco and the subsequent investigation, which was opposed by the army, further destabilized the situation. In this context, some sectors saw a coup as the only solution, as advocated by Miguel Primo de Rivera. His coup in September 1923 ushered in a dictatorship with two distinct stages: the Military Directory (1923-1925) and the Civil Directory (1925-1929).
The Military Directory (1923-1925)
Primo de Rivera’s Manifesto and Initial Actions
During the first directory, Primo de Rivera implemented the program outlined in his coup manifesto. He proclaimed a state of war, suspended the 1876 Constitution, dissolved Parliament, introduced press censorship, and banned political parties and trade unions. Public policy was militarized, with severe repression against the CNT and PCE. Nationalist manifestations were suppressed, and Catalan symbols were banned.
Administrative Reforms and the Catalan Issue
Primo de Rivera aimed to dismantle the old power structure and reform the administration. Provincial governors were replaced by military rulers, and a new set of government representatives was created. The military also controlled municipalities through boards of “associated members.” In Catalonia, municipalities and county councils were filled with regime loyalists, and the Provincial Regulations (1925) abolished the Commonwealth. This alienated Catalan regionalists and fueled radical nationalism.
The Moroccan Question
Primo de Rivera initially sought a negotiated solution to the Moroccan problem. However, an attack on Spanish troops in 1924 and Abd-el-Krim’s advances in French Morocco led to a joint Franco-Spanish military offensive in 1925. The Spanish landing at Alhucemas was a success.
The Civil Directory (1925-1929)
Institutionalization and Economic Policies
From 1925, Primo de Rivera aimed to institutionalize his regime with a civilian government. He established the National Consultative Assembly to draft a new constitution and implemented interventionist economic policies. The assembly, composed of government representatives, members of the Patriotic Union (the ruling party), and representatives of various social and economic classes, met in 1927. However, opposition from old dynastic parties and the king’s reluctance stalled the drafting of the Fundamental Statute of the monarchy.
Economic Nationalism and State Intervention
The dictatorship’s economic policy, aided by international expansion, was characterized by state intervention and economic nationalism. It aimed to protect and promote domestic industry through high tariffs, subsidies to large companies, and increased public spending on infrastructure projects. State monopolies like CAMPSA (oil and gasoline) and the National Telephone Company of Spain were created. This public expenditure, unaccompanied by tax reform, led to a growing budget deficit and increased public debt.
Social Policies and the National Corporate Organization
Social unrest was limited due to repression, a comprehensive social policy (housing, schools, health services), and a new model of industrial relations based on state intervention and the integration of moderate labor organizations. The National Corporate Organization established “joint committees” in each trade, composed of equal numbers of worker and employer representatives. These committees aimed to resolve conflicts through negotiation and had authority over labor issues. The Socialist party saw this system as advantageous for maintaining their organization.
Opposition and the Fall of the Dictatorship
Growing Opposition
Opposition to the regime grew from various sectors: the army (due to changes in promotion rules), Republican parties, intellectuals (Unamuno, Ortega y Gasset), journalists, anarchists, the PSOE, and nationalists. The initial conservative consensus fractured, and Primo de Rivera failed to transition to a constitutional system. Economic difficulties, including the devaluation of the peseta and rising public debt, intensified.
Alfonso XIII Withdraws Support and Primo de Rivera Resigns
Fearing that the dictatorship’s growing prestige would harm the monarchy, Alfonso XIII withdrew his support. Primo de Rivera resigned on January 28, 1930. The king appointed General Dámaso Berenguer to restore constitutional normality. However, the old dynastic parties and the rise of republicanism made a return to the 1876 regime impossible.
The Pact of San Sebastian and the Path to the Republic
In August 1930, Republican parties and Catalan and Galician nationalists signed the Pact of San Sebastian, aiming to proclaim a republic. The Socialists joined in October. A revolutionary committee, which would later form the provisional government of the republic, prepared for regime change through a military uprising with civilian support. Intellectuals like Ortega y Gasset and Gregorio Marañón published the manifesto of the Association for the Service of the Republic, further fueling the republican movement.