Primo de Rivera’s Dictatorship (1923-1930)
1. The Dictatorship (1923-1930)
Between September 1923 and January 1930, Spain lived under a dictatorship. It began with widespread support, but this consensus waned, and the regime ultimately collapsed after the economic crash of 1929. The six years of dictatorship represented the final attempt to impose regenerationist solutions and prevent the downfall of the Restoration. Unlike previous attempts, this was an authoritarian regime, backed by the armed forces. Its failure hastened the demise of Alfonso XIII’s monarchy, despite dictator Miguel Primo de Rivera’s belief that his actions had preserved it.
2. Causes of the Dictatorship
The decline of the Restoration between the summer of 1917 and 1923 stemmed from the inability of Liberals and Conservatives to maintain stable governments. This instability was fueled by widespread social protests, particularly in Catalonia, and the disastrous consequences of the Moroccan War. Following failed Liberal attempts to reform the system with a national government led by Antonio Maura and including figures like Romanones, Dato, Cambo, and García Prieto, the Conservatives attempted to form coalition governments between 1919 and 1921. These efforts failed, exacerbating the political, economic, and social crisis.
In Andalusia, rural unrest characterized the period known as the Trienio Bolchevista. Barcelona experienced terrorist acts, including clashes between employers and members of the CNT and Sindicatos Libres, culminating in the assassination of Mayor Eduardo Dato in March 1921. The Disaster of Annual in Morocco in July 1921 further intensified the crisis. Public outcry for accountability followed, and attempts to address the situation, including Maura’s efforts to form an all-party government, proved futile. Subsequent attempts by Maura and García Prieto to establish reformist governments also failed. The elections of April 29, 1923, demonstrated that politicians clung to corrupt and outdated methods.
On September 13, 1923, Primo de Rivera launched his coup in Barcelona. It stemmed from unrest within the army over the Moroccan War and Liberal policies, as well as suspicion surrounding the investigation into the Disaster of Annual. Many in Spanish society desired an authoritarian government to restore social order, cleanse the political system of corruption, and provide a temporary break from the constitutional system.
3. Military Directory and Authoritarian Rule
The Liberal government offered no resistance to the coup, and Alfonso XIII handed power to Primo de Rivera. He initially formed a provisional directory with fellow generals (Cavalcanti, Daban, Saro, Muñoz Cobos, and Berenguer). Three days later, a royal decree appointed Primo de Rivera head of a Military Directorate, composed of eight Brigadier Generals and one Admiral, granting him near-absolute power. Primo de Rivera attempted to implement regenerationist and monarchist policies through authoritarian means, establishing complaint offices in ministries and portraying the situation as a temporary “parenthesis of healing.” Initially intending to govern for three months, he gradually extended his rule, keeping the Cortes suspended.
The dictatorship targeted caciquismo, suspended political parties, restricted press freedom (exiling Miguel de Unamuno), replaced provincial and municipal councils with military delegations, and enacted the Municipal Statute and Provincial Statute in 1924 and 1925. These measures, aimed at democratizing social life and eliminating caciquismo, ultimately failed.
4. The Patriotic Union
In 1926, Primo de Rivera established the Unión Patriótica, a ruling party under his leadership, in an attempt to dismantle the party system. This initiative ultimately failed, as the old cacique networks persisted despite the dictatorship’s stated opposition to them. The party lacked a concrete program beyond maintaining social order and its own grip on power.
5. The Civil Directory
The dictatorship’s peak coincided with the pacification of the Moroccan protectorate, beginning with the Alhucemas landing in September 1925 and culminating in Abd el-Krim’s surrender in 1926, though resistance continued until mid-1927. Initially advocating a swift return to constitutionalism, Primo de Rivera shifted focus to consolidating his rule. Capitalizing on the success at Alhucemas, he replaced the Military Directorate with a Civil Directorate, comprising politicians and civil servants like José Calvo Sotelo (Finance Minister) and Eduardo Callejo Aunos.
In September 1927, Primo de Rivera established a corporatist National Consultative Assembly through undemocratic means. This body, composed of representatives from the state, municipalities, provinces, various social and economic groups, and the Patriotic Union, was tasked with drafting a vaguely authoritarian and corporatist constitution. Completed in 1929, it never took effect, rejected by both the King (due to clauses limiting his power to punish ministers) and the opposition (who felt it granted excessive power to the King).
6. Economic and Social Aspects
The Civil Directorate operated during a period of economic growth. While the agricultural sector lagged, industry benefited from state and bank investment. Monopolies like CAMPSA and the Compañía Telefónica Nacional de España were created, and banking consolidated, favoring large institutions over smaller Catalan banks. Calvo Sotelo’s work at the Ministry of Finance and Rafael Benjumea Burín’s at the Ministry of Public Works led to expansionary budgets and ambitious public works projects (road network expansion, international exhibitions in Seville and Barcelona), driving economic modernization.
The 1920s saw population growth, rising living standards, and increased employment. Combined with the Directorate’s repressive policies and a conciliatory approach towards the socialist UGT union, social conflict decreased, touted as a regime achievement. Inspired by Italian Fascism, Eduardo Aunós, Minister of Labor, Industry, and Commerce, implemented strong state intervention in the economy and paternalistic labor relations, without altering the capitalist model. Comités paritarios (joint committees) were established in companies, providing a platform for employer-employee mediation, including union representation. Other joint initiatives failed to gain traction.
7. The Opposition
Around 1925, opposition to the dictatorship was limited. Some Liberal politicians denounced the regime’s illegality but lacked public support. The anarchist CNT, outlawed and persecuted, continued operating clandestinely. Opposition also grew in Catalonia, where policies restricting Catalan language and the Municipal Statute (nullifying the Mancomunitat’s powers) fueled rejection of the dictatorship, benefiting Catalan nationalists and republicans at the expense of the moderate Lliga Regionalista.
From 1926 onwards, opposition intensified. Marginalized Republicans united, forming the Alianza Republicana in 1926. This coalition included federalists, Lerroux’s Radicals, Acción Republicana (led by Manuel Azaña), Partit Català Republicà (led by Lluís Companys), Estat Català (led by Francesc Macià), and intellectuals like Unamuno and Machado. However, divisions persisted within republicanism, hindering effective opposition until after Primo de Rivera’s fall.
The labor movement was divided. Within the PSOE and UGT, sectors led by Julián Besteiro and Francisco Largo Caballero cautiously collaborated with the regime, participating in joint committees. Minority factions, like Indalecio Prieto’s, advocated alliance with the Republicans. Within the CNT, moderates lost ground to anarchists, who formed the Federación Anarquista Ibérica (FAI) in 1927 and supported the Republican cause.
Intellectuals and students played a key role in the opposition. Figures like Unamuno, Blasco Ibáñez, and Jiménez de Asúa faced exile for criticizing the regime. The Federación Universitaria Escolar (FUE), formed in 1928, opposed Minister Callejo’s reforms favoring Church universities.
Military opposition also emerged, particularly after a conflict between the dictator and artillery officers. This led to coup attempts, such as the “Sanjuanada” in 1926, led by the conservative monarchist José Sánchez Guerra.
8. End of the Dictatorship
By 1929, difficulties mounted. Economic prosperity waned, a currency crisis forced Calvo Sotelo’s resignation, social unrest grew, and political opposition intensified. An attempt to revitalize the National Consultative Assembly failed due to a Socialist boycott and the refusal of cultural and economic institutions to participate. In January 1930, Primo de Rivera proposed a plan for a managed transition from dictatorship, involving elections. Alfonso XIII rejected it. Lacking military support, Primo de Rivera resigned on January 28, 1930, and left for Paris on February 10, dying there on March 15. The King tasked Dámaso Berenguer with restoring constitutional normalcy. Berenguer faced numerous challenges, including strikes, economic hardship, and Republican uprisings. The monarchy’s unpopularity grew, leading to widespread protests and a united opposition seeking its downfall and the establishment of a republic. The municipal elections of April 12, 1931, resulted in a Republican victory. The King, rejecting a proposal to retain symbolic power pending parliamentary elections, left Spain. Amidst widespread support, the Second Spanish Republic was proclaimed on April 14, 1931.