Primo de Rivera’s Dictatorship and the Path to Spain’s Second Republic
The Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera
The military coup of Primo de Rivera on September 12, 1923, was due to several reasons:
The Aftermath of the Annual Disaster: The army demanded more resources to avenge the humiliation, which the government was unwilling to provide. The dissolution of the Juntas de Defensa in 1922 and the Picasso Report caused the rejection of the military and conservative groups in Congress.
The Rise of Nationalism: Nationalism in Catalonia and the Basque Country was viewed with suspicion as a threat to the unity of the country by the more conservative right.
The Oligarchy’s Alarm: The division of the dynastic parties, the rise of republican and socialist parties, and the threat of the labor movement concerned the oligarchy.
A military dictatorship was, for the right, a possible solution to the ongoing political instability. For the military, it was the only way to stop the Picasso Report, and that was the determining factor in carrying out the coup.
Military Directory (1923-1925)
The military coup succeeded thanks to the silence and support of Alfonso XIII, who commissioned Primo to form a government.
Although Primo de Rivera presented the country with a manifesto in which he expressed a willingness for regeneration, the first measures were aimed at establishing a military dictatorship. He became sole minister, advised by a Military Directory. He declared a state of war and took over civilian government with military control. Constitutional guarantees were suspended, and Parliament was dissolved, while press censorship was established. There was little opposition to the coup, and unions and leftist parties remained on standby.
The government of the dictatorship tried to make some changes, such as the Municipal Statute of 1924 and the Provincial Statute of 1925, which attempted to expand the autonomy of municipalities and local authorities.
In Catalonia, the Provincial Councils and the Commonwealth were dissolved, the Catalan flag and anthem were banned, and the Catalan language was restricted to the private sphere.
In 1924, the Patriotic Union emerged under military leadership to unify Catholics and conservative groups that supported the dictatorship.
To maintain public order, any demonstration or protest was banned, and repressive measures were adopted against workers’ organizations.
The great success of the dictatorship was ending the war in Morocco. In 1924, after issuing an amnesty that ended the issue of responsibility, staff in Morocco was reduced, and a partial withdrawal was ordered. When, in 1925, Abd el-Krim invaded the French part of the Protectorate, Spain and France signed a military alliance that enabled the Landing of Al Hoceima, a joint operation that divided the Rif region and collapsed the power of Abd el-Krim.
Civil Directory (1925-1930)
At the end of 1925, Primo decided to replace the Military Directory with a civilian government to institutionalize the dictatorship.
In 1927, he convened a National Consultative Assembly, formed mostly by members of the Patriotic Union. It was responsible for developing a constitution that satisfied no one, so it never entered into force.
A National Council of Labour (1924) was created, and a series of laws on employment contracts, accidents, subsidies to large families, and maternity insurance were adopted. In 1926, the Corporate Labour Organization was launched, an official union to regulate the negotiation of agreements, which collaborated with the UGT, monopolizing labor representation on committees.
Economic policy was based on state intervention, for which the National Economic Council was created in 1924, resulting in the Ministry of National Economy in 1928. The objective was to reactivate the economy through rail, road, and water works.
Opposition to the Regime
Opposition to the regime grew around 1928, when various opposition groups began to coalesce:
The dynastic parties refused to cooperate with the dictatorship and demanded the restoration of the constitution and the holding of elections.
Republicans began to organize in 1926 in the Republican Alliance, becoming a political reference point for society, which identified republicanism with democracy.
The parties and organizations of the workers began to mobilize in 1927.
Catalan nationalism became an open confrontation with the regime.
Intellectuals joined in the criticism of the regime and supported the students and the University Spanish Federation (FUE) in demonstrations that began in February 1929 against the government’s attempt to encourage private universities, resulting in the closure of the universities of Madrid and Barcelona.
Discontent among the military also grew: personal rivalries, Primo’s arbitrariness in promotion, and opposition from the most liberal elements disturbed the atmosphere in the barracks, leading to an attempted revolt (February 1929).
In October came the fall of the New York Stock Exchange. Later that year, a wave of strikes shook the country, while the peseta collapsed. On January 27, 1930, Alfonso XIII accepted Primo de Rivera’s resignation.
From the Alfonsine Monarchy to the Second Republic
Alfonso XIII appointed General Dámaso Berenguer as prime minister, with the goal of returning to constitutional rule.
The new government was unable to address the critical economic situation in which production was sinking and unemployment was rising.
Throughout 1930, opposition grew. Republicans experienced a dramatic boost with the inclusion of politicians from the dynastic parties and nationalism and the support of young military personnel.
In August 1930, republicans and nationalists, joined by the Socialist Party in October with the support of the CNT, signed the Pact of San Sebastian: a united front against the monarchy, organizing a Revolutionary Committee to plan an uprising. The attempted uprising of December 1930 failed.
Berenguer announced his decision to hold elections and attempted to promote a monarchist party to win, but found no cooperation. On February 14, 1931, he submitted his resignation. The new prime minister, Aznar, called elections for April 12. Their results turned into a referendum on the monarchy or republic alternative. The massive support from the cities for the Republican candidates led the monarch to give up the crown and leave the country. The Second Republic was proclaimed on April 14, 1931.