Primo de Rivera’s Dictatorship in Spain: Rise, Policies, and Fall
Primo de Rivera’s Dictatorship in Spain
In a context of political and social crisis, Primo de Rivera opposed constitutional legality, declared a state of war, and demanded that King Alfonso XIII transfer power to the military. Alfonso XIII assented, and a military board chaired by Primo de Rivera suspended the constitutional parliamentary system.
Causes of the Military Coup
Primo de Rivera and his supporters defended his actions as a solution to the political crisis and social conflict. The reasons included:
- The instability and deadlock of the parliamentary political system.
- Widespread electoral fraud.
- Fear of social revolution.
- The desire to avoid accountability for the events of the war in Morocco.
Primo de Rivera’s inaugural manifesto announced his determination to rid the country of political bosses and end political corruption, social indiscipline, and threats to national unity. The dictatorship was an unconstitutional measure to halt potential systemic reforms that could threaten certain sectors and interests.
Restructuring of the State
Primo de Rivera’s dictatorship had two stages. Until 1925, a military board governed, composed initially of military members but later including government ministers and civilian figures. Power then transitioned to a civilian board, but the regime retained its authoritarian style. The first steps included suspending constitutional rule, dissolving the legislature, and dismissing civil authorities. The promised regeneration was a farce, as all electoral mechanisms were suspended, and political renewal was limited to replacing some leaders. During the first stage, the focus was on the conflict in Morocco. In 1926, Primo de Rivera organized the successful Alhucemas landing. From 1926 onward, he abandoned the idea of a temporary dictatorship and a return to constitutional rule. The path to an authoritarian regime began with convening a National Corporate Assembly, whose members were appointed, not elected, sidelining universal suffrage. A single party, the Patriotic Union, was created to provide social support for the dictatorship and follow its directives.
Economic and Social Policy
The dictatorship benefited from a favorable international economic situation after World War I. The guiding principle was the nationalization of key economic sectors and increased government intervention. The state played a significant role in promoting public works. Large monopolies were granted, such as in telephony and Campsa (oil monopoly). The agricultural sector remained in the hands of large landowners, with no agrarian reform undertaken. In the social sphere, the state intervened to resolve labor disputes. The National Corporate Organization was created, bringing together employers and workers in large corporations to regulate wages and working conditions and to mediate and arbitrate conflicts.
Opposition to the Dictatorship
Opposition to the dictatorship came from leaders of dynastic parties, Republicans, Socialists, Communists, and Anarchists. There were military conspiracies, such as the ‘San Juanada’ plot. Intellectuals and academics faced censorship and restrictions on academic freedom, leading to student protests and the formation of the Federation of Republican Character of the Spanish University. Figures like Ortega y Gasset and Unamuno led the intellectual opposition. The most persistent political opposition came from Republicanism and Catalan nationalism. The Republican opposition organized the ‘Republican Alliance.’ In Catalonia, Primo de Rivera’s measures, including the dissolution of the Mancomunitat, the prohibition of the public use of Catalan, and the banning of the sardana dance, fueled opposition. The CNT (National Confederation of Labor) opposed the regime and was persecuted. In July 1927, radicals formed the Iberian Anarchist Federation, and the PSOE (Spanish Socialist Workers’ Party) began to favor a republic.
Fall of Primo de Rivera
Opposition to Primo de Rivera intensified as King Alfonso XIII and his entourage became convinced that the dictatorship threatened the monarchy. The king withdrew his confidence, and the dictator resigned on January 30, 1930. General Berenguer was tasked with replacing him and holding elections to return to constitutional normality. The opposition organized and signed the Pact of San Sebastian, a program to contest elections and form a revolutionary committee that would become the provisional government of a future republic. Berenguer failed to organize elections and was replaced by a government headed by Admiral Aznar, who scheduled municipal, provincial, and legislative elections. The government decided to hold local elections first, considering them less dangerous for the monarchy, attempting to return to normalcy as if nothing had happened.
Conclusion
Alfonso XIII was deeply associated with the dictatorship, and the elections were presented as a vote for or against the monarchy. The outcome of the April 12, 1931, elections was a victory for the Republicans. Alfonso XIII abdicated, left Spain on April 14, and the Second Republic was proclaimed.