Primo de Rivera’s Dictatorship: Rise, Fall, and Impact on Spain
Primo de Rivera’s Dictatorship
The Rise of Authoritarianism
Primo de Rivera’s rise to power stemmed from a military uprising in Barcelona on September 13, 1923. Several factors contributed to this coup, including the decay of the Cánovas system, failed democratization efforts after the 1917 crisis, escalating social conflicts (particularly in Barcelona), anarchist terrorism spurred by the Fugitive Law, a growing agrarian problem marked by landless laborers and revolts, an economic crisis fueled by the end of World War I, radicalized regional nationalism, political instability (turnismo), a lack of effective political opposition, and the ongoing Moroccan conflict.
Two Distinct Periods
The dictatorship unfolded in two phases: the Military Directory (1923-1925) and the Civil Directory (1925-1930). The Military Directory, with Primo de Rivera as chairman, was a transitional military government. This authoritarian regime aimed to address Spain’s problems through military regenerationism, echoing earlier movements. While claiming to follow regenerationist principles by eliminating caciquismo (political bossism), early actions revealed its dictatorial nature. The constitutional system was suspended, courts dissolved, and civilian governors replaced by military appointees.
The dictatorship addressed some issues, such as terrorism and the Moroccan conflict, but its success in combating caciquismo, regional nationalism, and agricultural worker concerns was limited. The Catalan Commonwealth was suppressed in 1925 to reinforce centralism, along with its distinct symbols (flag, language, anthem, and even FC Barcelona).
Following military successes and increased popularity, Primo de Rivera replaced the Military Directory with a Civil Directory, attempting to institutionalize the dictatorship by incorporating civilian governance.
Ideological Foundations
Primo de Rivera admired Mussolini and sought a brief interruption in Spain’s constitutional path, intending to restore it once political vices were purged. While inspired by Mussolini, his ideology wasn’t strictly fascist. It combined Spanish nationalism, Catholicism, and traditional paternalistic social conservatism.
Economic Policies and the Roaring Twenties
The dictatorship coincided with a period of economic prosperity known as the Roaring Twenties. Key economic policies included:
- The Industrial Protection Law of 1926: This law imposed high tariffs to shield domestic industries from foreign competition and provided aid to companies. The Industrial Credit Bank was established to offer low-interest loans to new and “preferred” industries (e.g., oil and strategic sectors).
- Creation of State Monopolies: These included the Telephone Company (1927), which centralized the telephone network; CAMPSA (the oil monopoly), which controlled petroleum imports, refining, distribution, and sales; and the County Public Works Plan of Guadalhorce, which allocated a special budget for transport improvements, stimulating the iron and cement industries. This plan led to a National Plan improving approximately 7,000 km of roads, a Railways Plan constructing 800 km of new lines and electrifying existing ones (supported by the State Railway Fund), and a National Plan for affordable housing, resulting in neighborhoods of detached houses built for needy families.
Notably, there was no agrarian reform, an issue later addressed by the Second Republic.
The Fall of the Dictatorship
Soldiers stationed in the peninsula viewed Primo de Rivera as pro-Moroccan and opposed to conventions protecting their careers. By 1930, Republicans had become a prominent political force, increasingly identified with democratic republicanism. Republican parties united in August 1930, signing the Pact of San Sebastián, pledging an insurrection to establish a republic. They formed an electoral coalition, and elections were held amidst uncertainty. On February 14, 1931, following the election results, widespread demonstrations for the republic erupted, leading to the proclamation of the Second Spanish Republic in April 1931.