Primo de Rivera’s Regime in Spain: 1923-1930
Primo de Rivera’s Dictatorship and the End of the Monarchy
The dictatorship of Primo de Rivera’s regime was present in Spain from the coup of the Captain General of Catalonia, Miguel Primo de Rivera, on September 13, 1923, until his resignation on January 29, 1930. It was replaced by the so-called Dictablanda of General Dámaso Berenguer. The dictatorship was able to stabilize the political situation over a long period, but a later political crisis discredited King Alfonso XIII and paved the way for the Second Republic.
Background
Between 1917 and 1923, the Restoration regime gradually weakened, culminating in a crisis that lasted until the coup of 1923. The end of World War I brought a deep economic and social crisis, the consequences of which made coexistence difficult in Spain in the early 1920s. Added to this were the consequences of the Disaster of Annual (a military defeat in Morocco), after which Miguel Primo de Rivera, encouraged by the Catalan bourgeoisie and supported by the king, assumed all power in a dictatorship (1923).
Development
On September 13, 1923, the Captain General of Catalonia, Miguel Primo de Rivera, rebelled against the government and staged a coup with the support of most military units. The meeting of the Parliament, scheduled for immediately following dates in order to analyze the problem of Morocco and the army’s role in the conflict, sparked the uprising. This situation was compounded by a serious crisis of the monarchy, which did not quite fit into a 20th-century industrial revolution marked by rapid change, trouble with bourgeois nationalist tensions, and traditional political parties unable to cope with a fully democratic regime.
Previously, Antonio Maura had advised the King against the possibility of a coup or the establishment of any authoritarian system. On September 14, the legitimate government asked the King for the immediate dismissal of the rebel generals, namely José Sanjurjo and Primo de Rivera, and the convening of the Parliament, but the King let the hours pass until he finally showed open support for the coup.
The Military Directory
The rebels’ manifesto called for the salvation of Spain from “professional politicians.” With support from the army, the Catalan bourgeoisie, and Andalusian landowners, King Alfonso XIII did not present major obstacles to appointing Primo de Rivera as Prime Minister in his capacity as military dictator on September 15. The dictatorship was only contested by labor unions and Republicans, whose protests were immediately silenced by censorship and repression. A Military Directorate was created, composed of nine generals and an admiral, whose purpose, in their own words, was “to put Spain in order” before returning power to civilian hands. The 1876 Constitution was suspended, the councils were dissolved, political parties were banned, urban militias known as somatén were created, and a state of war was declared. Thus, Primo de Rivera became the sole Head of Government and Minister.
Primo de Rivera offered a folksy and paternalistic image while maintaining a very up-to-date anti-political discourse at the time, pointing out corrupt politicians and sending simple messages to the people that suggested an easy solution to the problems with purely domestic recipes for everyone.
In addition to the dissolution of the Cortes, a decree was issued on September 18 banning the use of any language other than Spanish, as well as Basque and Catalan flags and symbols. The Commonwealth of Catalonia was seized with the appointment of Alfons Sala as curator, and provincial assemblies were dissolved.
The War in Africa and the Satisfaction of the Army
The Spanish army remained pessimistic about its own role in the recent history of Spain, due to the Disaster of ’98, the Disaster of Annual, and the misunderstanding of the citizens. Primo de Rivera, once the coup had succeeded, advocated for the abandonment of Morocco, but it became a priority issue, and he assumed the post of High Commissioner.
The Alhucemas landings in 1925 made possible, with French help, the systematic conquest of the territory and thus the end of the war. Abd el-Krim surrendered to French authorities, and military operations were concluded.
The Civil Directory
On December 3, 1925, the office of President of the Council of Ministers was re-established, and what is known as the Civil Directory was established, with men who were not from the old party system. Among them were José Calvo Sotelo as Minister of Finance, Galo Ponte y Escartín as Minister of Grace and Justice, and Eduardo Callejo de la Cuesta as Minister of Education, among others. However, the Constitution remained suspended.
Democratic systems were staggering even in Europe. Primo de Rivera met with Benito Mussolini, welcomed a significant part of the corporatist system that was being implemented in Italy, and tried to import it into Spain.
Economic Field
An enabling international environment allowed the beginning of the dictatorship to strengthen industrial and mining growth. Minister Calvo Sotelo undertook an expansionary and interventionist economic policy. Companies such as CAMPSA, Telefónica, and Iberia were created.
The government also began a policy of extensive public interventions to improve communications (roads and rail), irrigation, and hydropower.
He fought the unions of the CNT and the Communist Party of Spain, and the newly established dictatorship allowed the UGT and the PSOE to maintain some contact with labor leaders, albeit with reservations.
Administrative Policy Area
Administrative reform in 1924 led to the Municipal Statute, approved on March 8, and a year later, the Provincial Statute, trying to offer some degree of local autonomy to enable the development of municipalities.
These early successes gave him great popularity. He created the Patriotic Union as an umbrella organization for all political aspirations and the National Corporate Organization as a vertical union model based on Fascist Italy, substituting the Military Directorate with a civilian one on December 3, 1925.
In 1927, a National Consultative Assembly was established as a parliament, but without assuming legislative power. It used a system of corporate re-election in part and lifetime appointment on the other, very similar to that adopted by Franco years later. This project and the failed constitution of 1929 were the last attempts to keep the dictatorship alive.