Propaganda and Persuasion: Understanding Attitude Change
Propaganda and Persuasion
Propaganda Definition
Propaganda is the technique of influencing human action by manipulating representations. These representations may take spoken, written, pictorial, or musical form.
Difference Between Persuasion and Propaganda
If the message benefits only the speaker, it is propaganda. If the message benefits both the speaker and the audience, it is persuasion.
Glittering Generality
Glittering generality is associating something with a virtue word, used to make us accept and approve the thing without examining the evidence. This use is so pervasive that we hardly notice it.
Examples:
- Product Names: Common uses of virtue words like “Wonder Bread” and “Superior Dairy.” Some cereals are given names that will particularly appeal to children, like “Cheerios,” “Captain Crunch,” and “Froot Loops.”
- Politics: Calling a proposed law a “Right to Work” law might be an effective way to get the law passed because who would oppose the right to work?
Consistency
Consistency is the notion that phenomena are ordered (or consistent), which allows predictability. The concept of consistency in human behavior is an extension of the general notion from the physical world to the area of human behavior.
The Importance of Rationalization
Rationalization is the attempt to explain irrational behavior rationally. It emphasizes that in our desire to appear rational or consistent to ourselves, we often employ means that may seem irrational or inconsistent to others.
Heider’s Balance Theory: Unbalanced States vs. Balanced States
Unbalanced states produce tension and generate forces to restore balance. The concept of a balanced state designates a situation in which the perceived units and the experienced sentiments co-exist without stress.
Examples:
- Balanced State: John wants to have a baby with Mary, and Mary says yes. John is happy, and there is a balanced state.
- Unbalanced State: John wants to have a baby with Mary, but she does not want to. There is an unbalanced state. (- – = +) A balanced state is like math.
Osgood’s Congruity Theory
Osgood’s congruity theory deals with the attitudes persons hold toward sources of information.
Example:
John watches Fox News because they support building a wall. If Fox News changes that idea, there is incongruity, and John will change the channel or source. When there is incongruity, change your channel.
Festinger’s Theory of Cognitive Dissonance
Festinger’s theory of cognitive dissonance holds that two elements of knowledge are in a dissonant relation if, considering these two alone, the obverse of one element would follow from the other. This theory involves decision-making, forced compliance, selective exposure, and selective attention.
Selective Attention
Selective attention is attending to only the parts of a message that agree with our prevailing frame of reference.
Selective Exposure
Selective exposure is the avoidance of messages that we suspect will not agree with our concept of the world.
Three Components of Attitude
- Affective
- Cognitive
- Behavioral
Hovland and the ‘Learning Theory’ Approach to Studying Attitude Change
Reinforcement theory suggests that attitudes are learned and changed through the same processes that occur when learning takes place.
Research Method Used by Hovland
Hovland used the experimental method, which divides participants into two groups: an experimental group and a control group. The experimental group receives “treatment,” while the control group receives no treatment.
Sleeper Effect
Over time, there is a tendency for people to dissociate the source and opinion.
Most Effective Way to Change People’s Attitudes
The minimal-fear appeal is the most effective way to change people’s attitudes.
Loss Frame vs. Gain Frame
Loss frame presents the threat in terms of lost opportunities, while gain frame presents it in terms of gained opportunities or decreased negative consequences.
What Does Evidence Show?
Evidence shows that loss frames are more persuasive than gain frames.
Inoculation Theory
Exposure to a weakened form of a message that disagrees with your belief will strengthen your own beliefs.
What Does Inoculation Theory Indicate?
Inoculation theory indicates that refutational materials, not supportive materials, will increase people’s resistance to changing their opinions.
Heuristic-Systematic Model
- Systematic Processing: Careful, analytical examination of the message. Very detailed and rational.
- Heuristic Processing: Using schemas and frames of reference to digest the message.
Elaboration Likelihood Model
The Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) is more important and more used by psychologists than the Heuristic-Systematic Model. It proposes two routes to attitude change:
- Central Route: Active and rational thinking and interpretation of the message. It involves high elaboration and focuses on patterns and overall impressions rather than detailed information.
- Peripheral Route: Digesting the message based upon peripheral cues. It involves low elaboration and no detailed analysis. Peripheral cues include credibility and liking.