Psychological Science: Key Concepts and Critical Thinking

Posted on Apr 1, 2025 in Psychology and Sociology

Chapter 1: Introduction to Psychological Science

Psychological science is the study of the mind and behavior through research.

Key Concepts:

  • Mind: Mental activity, including perceptions, thoughts, memories, and feelings.
  • Brain: Mental activity results from biological processes within the brain.
  • Behavior: Observable actions.

How We Acquire Knowledge:

  • Authority: Information from an “expert.”
  • Rational: Reasoning through logic.
  • Intuitive: Relying on a hunch.
  • Empirical: Fact-based information.

Critical Thinking in Psychological Science

Critical thinking, a core skill taught in psychological science, enhances one’s ability to systematically question and evaluate information using well-supported evidence.

Elements of Critical Thinking:

  1. Identifying gaps in evidence.
  2. Applying logic and reasoning to assess information.
  3. Considering alternative explanations.

Critical thinking requires healthy skepticism and an open mind.

Common Biases in Critical Thinking

  1. Ignoring Evidence (Confirmation Bias): Question your own beliefs.
  2. Failing to Accurately Judge Source Credibility: Evaluate sources carefully.
  3. Misunderstanding or Not Using Statistics: Avoid relying solely on intuition.
  4. Seeing Relationships That Do Not Exist: Avoid drawing unfounded conclusions.
  5. Using Relative Comparisons: Consider context.
  6. Accepting After-the-Fact Explanations: Be wary of hindsight bias.
  7. Taking Mental Shortcuts: Avoid oversimplification.
  8. Failing to See Our Own Inadequacies (Self-Serving Bias): Recognize limitations.

Psychological reasoning can help overcome these biases.

Historical Roots of Psychology

Psychology originated in philosophy. Ancient Greek, Chinese, and Muslim philosophers and scientists explored human behavior.

Early Perspectives:

Early scholars believed the mind was separate from and in control of the body. In the 1600s, René Descartes’ dualism proposed that the body and mind were separate, but some mental functions resulted from bodily functions.

Structuralism:

Structuralism proposes that conscious experience can be broken down into its basic underlying components. Wilhelm Wundt founded the first experimental psychology lab in 1879 in Leipzig, Germany.

Introspection: A systematic examination of subjective mental experiences, requiring people to inspect and report on the content of their thoughts.

William James: Physiologist, philosopher, and author of Principles of Psychology (1890). Mary Whiton Calkins was the first woman to establish a psychological laboratory and the first woman president of the American Psychological Association (1905).

Functionalism:

Functionalism is an approach to psychology concerned with the adaptive purpose or function of mind and behavior.

Stream of Consciousness: Coined by William James to describe each person’s continuous series of ever-changing thoughts.

Evolutionary Influences:

  • Natural Selection: Mutations that facilitate survival and reproduction are passed along.
  • Survival of the Fittest: Species better adapted to their environments are more likely to survive and reproduce.
  • Evolutionary Theory: Presented by naturalist Charles Darwin, it views the history of a species in terms of the inherited, adaptive value of physical characteristics, mental activity, and behaviors.
  • Adaptation: As randomly mutated genes are passed along from generation to generation, species change over time.

Gestalt Psychology:

Founded by Max Wertheimer in 1912, Gestalt theory posits that the whole (of personal experience) is different from the sum of its constituent elements. The perception of objects is subjective and dependent on context.

Behaviorism:

Behaviorism emphasizes the role of environmental forces in producing observable behavior. John B. Watson challenged psychology’s focus on conscious and unconscious mental processes. (Stimulus, Organism, Response)

Modern Perspectives:

Cognitive Neuroscience: The study of the neural mechanisms underlying thought, learning, perception, language, and memory. Cognitive Psychology: The study of mental functions such as intelligence, thinking, language, memory, and decision-making. Social Psychology: The study of how people influence other people’s thoughts, feelings, and actions. Personality Psychology: The study of characteristic thoughts, emotions, and behaviors in people and how they vary across social situations.