Psychology Fundamentals: Theories, Methods, and Concepts
Chapter 1 – Introduction to Psychology
Roots of Psychology
Psyche + Logos: The term “psychology” comes from Greek, where “psyche” means soul or spirit, and “logos” refers to study or discourse. Early psychology focused on understanding the essence of human experience.
Study of breath, spirit, soul: In its earliest form, psychology was deeply connected to philosophy and spirituality, attempting to explain human consciousness and existence.
Philosophy + Physiology: The foundation of psychology emerged from philosophical discussions about the mind and body (e.g., Descartes, Locke) and physiological research into brain function and sensory experience.
Definition of Psychology
The scientific study of both behavior and mind: Modern psychology systematically investigates how individuals think, feel, and behave through research methods and empirical evidence.
Major Psychological Theories
Dualism (Descartes): The idea that the mind and body are two distinct entities that communicate through the pineal gland. This suggests that mental and physical processes are separate but interact.
Natural Selection (Darwin): A process where traits that enhance survival and reproduction are passed down, leading to evolutionary changes in behavior and cognition.
Structuralism (Wundt & Titchener): A psychological approach that attempted to break down human consciousness into its most basic components using introspection (self-examination of thoughts and feelings).
Functionalism (James & Angell): Instead of focusing on the structure of the mind, functionalism studied how mental processes help individuals adapt to their environment and function in everyday life.
Behaviorism (Watson & Skinner): A theory that rejects introspection and focuses solely on observable behaviors. It emphasizes that behaviors are learned through reinforcement and punishment.
Psychoanalysis (Freud): Freud proposed that human behavior is influenced by unconscious desires, repressed memories, and childhood experiences. He developed concepts such as the id (instincts), ego (rational mind), and superego (morality).
Humanism (Rogers, Maslow, Seligman): This perspective highlights personal growth, free will, and self-actualization. It focuses on the positive aspects of human nature and the drive to reach one’s full potential.
Cognitive Psychology: Studies internal mental processes like memory, problem-solving, and perception. It views the mind as an information-processing system.
Evolutionary Psychology: Examines how natural selection has shaped behaviors that enhance survival and reproduction, such as cooperation and mate selection.
Experiential Learning (Vygotsky): Emphasizes that learning occurs through social interactions and cultural influences. Vygotsky introduced the Zone of Proximal Development, describing the gap between what a learner can do alone and what they can do with guidance.
Types of Psychologists
Clinical Psychologists: Diagnose and treat mental disorders using therapy and intervention.
Applied Psychologists: Use psychological principles to solve real-world problems in fields such as education, business, and health.
Research Psychologists: Conduct studies to discover fundamental principles of behavior, cognition, and emotion.
Other Key Concepts
Empiricism vs. Nativism: Empiricism suggests that knowledge comes from experience and observation, whereas nativism argues that some knowledge is innate and present at birth.
Historical Presence of Female Psychologists: Women faced discrimination in psychology, often being excluded from higher education and research opportunities. Despite this, pioneers like Mary Whiton Calkins, the first female APA president, and Margaret Floy Washburn, the first woman to earn a psychology Ph.D., made major contributions.
Eclectic Approach in Clinical Practice: Combines multiple psychological perspectives and methods to treat mental health conditions effectively, allowing for a more personalized and adaptable approach to therapy. This approach ensures treatment is flexible and tailored to the needs of the individual.
Intersectionality: Examines how different aspects of a person’s identity (e.g., race, gender, class) interact and influence experiences, particularly in social and cultural contexts.
Chapter 2 – Research Methods
Scientific Method
Steps: The scientific method involves forming a question, generating a hypothesis, conducting an experiment, analyzing data, and drawing conclusions. It ensures research is systematic and objective.
Operational Definition: A specific, measurable definition of a variable in a study. For example, defining “stress” as “heart rate increase measured over 5 minutes.”
Theory vs. Hypothesis: A theory is a well-supported explanation of phenomena, while a hypothesis is a testable prediction derived from a theory.
Three Primary Research Designs
Descriptive Research: A method used to observe and describe behavior without manipulation, including case studies, surveys, and naturalistic observation. It does not establish cause and effect.
Correlational Research: Examines relationships between variables to determine whether they are associated but does not imply causation.
Experimental Research: Manipulates an independent variable to observe its effect on a dependent variable, allowing researchers to determine causal relationships.
Other Key Concepts
Problems with Correlational Research: Correlation does not equal causation; a third variable could be influencing both correlated variables. Additionally, directionality issues can arise, meaning it is unclear whether one variable is causing the other or vice versa.
Independent Variable vs. Dependent Variable: The independent variable is what the researcher changes, while the dependent variable is what is measured to see the effect of that change.
Random Sampling: Random sampling means selecting individuals from a population in a way that gives everyone an equal chance of being chosen. This helps ensure that the sample accurately represents the larger population, reducing bias and making the study results more generalizable.
Random Assignment: Participants are randomly placed into experimental or control groups to ensure differences in results are due to the independent variable, not preexisting differences.
Ethics in Research: Ethical guidelines in research ensure that participants are treated with respect and fairness. Researchers must obtain informed consent, meaning participants agree to take part after being fully informed of the study’s purpose and any potential risks. Confidentiality ensures that personal information is protected and not shared without permission. Minimizing harm means researchers must avoid causing physical or psychological distress, and if risks exist, they must be justified and mitigated as much as possible. Ethical research ensures trust in psychology and protects participants’ rights
Types of Validity: Internal validity measures the accuracy of a study’s cause-and-effect conclusions, while external validity assesses whether findings can be generalized beyond the study.
Measures of Central Tendency: Statistical tools—mean (average), median (middle value), and mode (most frequent value)—used to summarize data distributions.