Psychology: Study of Behavior, Cognition, and Mental Processes
Psychology: The Science of Behavior and Experience
Introduction
Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and experience, encompassing how humans and animals feel, think, learn, and adapt to their environment. Modern psychology focuses on gathering data about behavior and experience, organizing it systematically, and developing theories to enhance our understanding. These theories explain human behavior and, in some cases, predict future actions.
Methods in Psychology
Descriptive Methods
- Case Study: An objective and systematic way of conveying information obtained from studying various cases. Sigmund Freud, the father of psychoanalysis, extensively used this method.
- Surveys: A widely used method for gathering data from a population sample. However, it can be less reliable due to potential biases in responses.
- Interviews: A series of questions designed to facilitate observation of another person or oneself.
- Questionnaires: Similar to surveys but with fewer answer options and less clarity about the purpose for the subject.
- Naturalistic Observation: Directly analyzing the subject in their natural environment or in the laboratory, without their awareness of being observed.
Women in Psychology
Historically, women were marginalized in psychology. Mary Whiton Calkins, born in 1863, was denied a doctorate due to her gender. However, she founded a psychology laboratory at Wellesley College and pioneered the study of human memory. Margaret Floy Washburn became the first woman to earn a doctorate in psychology in 1898 from Cornell University. Beverly Prosser was the first African-American woman to receive a doctorate in psychology in 1933 from the University of Cincinnati.
Genetics and the Neuron
Gene Therapy
Gene therapy aims to manipulate DNA to treat hereditary disorders.
Neuron Structure
Neurons consist of a cell body containing the nucleus and extensions called dendrites and axons. Neuronal communication relies on proteins like MAP2, which receive external stimuli and translate them into a nervous language. This process involves action potentials, which are electrical impulses.
Neuron Classification
Neurons are classified based on their shape and connections:
- Projection Neurons: Have a single long extension.
- Unipolar, Bipolar, Multipolar: Classified by the number of extensions.
- Sensory Neurons: Transmit information from the external environment to the organism.
- Motor Neurons: Relay information from the brain and spinal cord to muscles and glands.
- Interneurons: Collect neuronal impulses from sensory and motor neurons, activating muscles involved in movement.
Prominent Figures in Biology and Psychology
Charles Darwin
Born on February 12, 1809, Charles Darwin was the grandson of Erasmus Darwin. After a mediocre academic career, he pursued his passion for natural history and embarked on a voyage as a naturalist. This journey provided him with valuable specimens that helped him formulate his theory of evolution by natural selection. His seminal work, “On the Origin of Species,” was published in 1859. Darwin died in April 1882, leaving behind a legacy that revolutionized biology.
Gregor Mendel
Born on July 22, 1822, in the Czech Republic, Gregor Mendel overcame financial challenges to pursue his intellectual ambitions. He entered a monastery in Brno, where he dedicated himself to scientific research. Mendel’s groundbreaking experiments on pea plants revealed the fundamental principles of inheritance, laying the foundation for modern genetics. Despite facing setbacks in his academic career, Mendel’s contributions to science earned him recognition and prestigious awards.
Santiago Ramón y Cajal
Born in May 1852, Santiago Ramón y Cajal was a Spanish neuroscientist who made significant contributions to our understanding of the nervous system. He studied medicine and served as a military physician in Cuba. Cajal’s meticulous observations using microscopy led to the discovery of the neuron doctrine, which states that the nervous system is composed of individual cells called neurons. His work earned him the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1906, solidifying his place as a pioneer in neuroscience.
Psychoanalytic Theory
Levels of Consciousness
- Unconscious: Contains innate instincts, desires, and repressed thoughts. Dreams and slips of the tongue offer glimpses into the unconscious.
- Preconscious: Composed of thoughts, memories, and learnings that are not readily available but can be accessed voluntarily.
- Conscious: Includes perceptions, thoughts, and memories that we are aware of and can retrieve information from.
Personality Structure
- Id: The most primitive part of the personality, governed by the pleasure principle. It seeks immediate gratification of instinctual drives.
- Ego: The rational part of the personality, operating according to the reality principle. It mediates between the id and the superego.
- Superego: Represents the moral conscience and strives for perfection. It imposes moral standards on the ego.
Defense Mechanisms
- Repression: Excluding anxiety-provoking thoughts and feelings from consciousness.
- Regression: Retreating to earlier stages of development.
- Projection: Attributing one’s own threatening impulses to others.
- Rationalization: Providing seemingly reasonable explanations for unacceptable behavior.
- Displacement: Redirecting aggressive impulses toward a less threatening target.
Learning Theory
Concept of Learning
Learning encompasses various aspects, including the nature of learning, theories of learning, specific behaviors, and cognitive processes involved in acquiring knowledge.
Learning Theories
- Classical and Instrumental Conditioning
- Cognitive Theory
- Relational Theory
- Gestalt Theory
- Information Processing Theories
- Social Learning Theory