Public Opinion, Political Action, and the Media: Shaping American Democracy
Chapter 6: Public Opinion and Political Action
Understanding Public Opinion
Public opinion reflects the beliefs and attitudes held by a population about political matters and policy issues. This concept is central to understanding the dynamics of a democratic society.
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The Changing Demographics of America
The United States has been shaped by waves of immigration throughout its history. The first census, conducted in 1790, marked the beginning of tracking these demographic shifts. The most recent census, conducted in 2010, reveals a nation that continues to evolve.
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The period following World War II witnessed a significant influx of immigrants, primarily Hispanics and Asians, contributing to the rich tapestry of cultures in the U.S.
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This fusion of cultures, ideas, and peoples is often referred to as the melting pot, a term that captures the nation’s history of assimilation and integration.
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The 2000 census highlighted the growing diversity of the U.S. population, indicating that Hispanics constituted the largest minority group at 13 percent. This figure further increased to 15 percent by the 2010 census.
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Furthermore, the 2008 census reported that African Americans comprised approximately 13 percent of the population, a figure that slightly decreased to 12.3 percent in the 2010 census.
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These demographic changes have significant political consequences, particularly in the process of reapportionment, which impacts the allocation of seats in the U.S. House of Representatives.
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Reapportionment and Political Power
Reapportionment, conducted after every decennial census, involves redistributing the 435 seats in the House of Representatives based on population shifts. This process determines the number of seats each state receives, influencing the balance of political power.
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The Role of Education in Socialization
Education plays a crucial role in shaping the political views of individuals. The government’s influence on socialization is most evident in the realm of schooling.
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Understanding Opinion Polls and Sampling
Opinion polls provide insights into public sentiment, but it’s essential to understand the concept of sampling error. This statistical measure indicates how closely a sample reflects the opinions of the entire population. A typical margin of error in polls is around 3 percent.
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Random sampling is crucial for accurate opinion polls, ensuring that every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected for the survey sample.
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Exit polls, conducted on election day by interviewing voters leaving polling places, provide valuable data for understanding voting patterns. However, it’s important to note that these polls are estimates and also subject to a sampling error.
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Political Ideologies: Liberalism and Conservatism
Liberal ideology generally supports a strong central government with policies aimed at promoting equality through social services.
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When asked about their political ideology, Americans often identify as conservative, moderate, or liberal. Interestingly, a significant portion of the population identifies as moderate.
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Gender and Political Attitudes
Studies reveal distinct patterns in the political attitudes of men and women. Women are generally more likely to oppose higher military spending and support spending on social services compared to men.
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This difference in political views between genders is often referred to as the gender gap, with women consistently showing a higher likelihood of supporting Democratic candidates.
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Age and Political Beliefs
Age also plays a role in shaping political beliefs. Young Americans are more likely to identify as liberals. However, they often hold conservative views on issues like social security and education.
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Civil Disobedience: Challenging Unjust Laws
Civil disobedience involves the deliberate act of breaking a law deemed unjust, with the expectation of facing the consequences. This form of protest highlights the tension between individual conscience and the authority of the law.
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Minority Participation and the Participation Gap
The participation gap, referring to the disparity in voter turnout between minority groups and the national average, has been a subject of concern. However, there’s evidence to suggest that this gap is narrowing, partly due to a growing sense of group consciousness among minorities, motivating them to exercise their right to vote.
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Studies indicate that when factors like income and education are equal, members of minority groups tend to participate in voting at higher rates compared to the White majority.
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The Paradox of American Political Beliefs
Americans often exhibit a seeming paradox in their political beliefs: they are ideological conservatives but operational liberals. This means they generally oppose the idea of a large government in principle but favor government services in practice.
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The Socioeconomic Status of Asian Americans
Among America’s diverse minority groups, Asian Americans stand out for their relatively high socioeconomic status, often outperforming other groups in terms of income and educational attainment.
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Reapportionment: A Cornerstone of Democracy
The process of reapportionment, conducted every ten years based on census data, ensures that representation in the House of Representatives accurately reflects the changing demographics of the nation.
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The Impact of Aging on Political Engagement
As individuals age, their political participation and party attachments tend to increase, highlighting the influence of life experiences on political engagement.
Survey Samples and Representation
In public opinion polling, a survey sample, typically consisting of 1,000-1,500 individuals, is carefully selected to represent the entire population. This random selection process, along with a sufficient sample size, helps ensure a small margin of error, typically around 3 percent.
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Political Ideology: A Framework for Understanding Beliefs
Political ideology provides a coherent framework for understanding an individual’s beliefs about politics, policy, and government. It encompasses a set of values and principles that guide their political attitudes and actions.
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Shifting Attitudes Towards LGBTQ+ Rights
Over the past few decades, there has been a notable increase in public support for LGBTQ+ rights across all ideological groups, reflecting a broader societal shift towards greater acceptance and inclusion.
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Wealth and Political Influence
Wealthy Americans are more likely to engage in political activities, including making donations to election campaigns and supporting candidates who align with their interests. This highlights the influence of economic resources on the political process.
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Chapter 7: The Mass Media and the Political Agenda
The Rise of Media Politics
The presidency of Ronald Reagan marked a turning point in the relationship between politics and the media. Reagan’s administration placed a significant emphasis on managing the president’s media appearances, recognizing the power of media in shaping public perception.
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Franklin D. Roosevelt, however, was the first president to effectively leverage the power of media. Through his frequent press conferences and fireside chats, particularly using the then-new medium of radio, Roosevelt established a direct line of communication with the American people.
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Investigative Journalism: Holding Power Accountable
Investigative journalism plays a crucial role in a democratic society. By employing methods akin to detective work, journalists delve into issues of public concern, often uncovering scandals and holding those in power accountable.
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This form of journalism often positions reporters and political leaders as antagonists, as journalists strive to expose wrongdoing and provide the public with unbiased information.
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The Media Spotlight and Political Campaigns
Politicians understand the power of media coverage in shaping public opinion. When Barack Obama engaged in grassroots campaigning, such as door-to-door interactions in Iowa, it was not just about connecting with voters directly but also about attracting the attention of the national media, amplifying his message to a wider audience.
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The First Amendment: Protecting Freedom of the Press
The First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution guarantees freedom of the press, a cornerstone of American democracy. This protection empowers the media to fulfill its crucial role in holding the government accountable and providing a platform for diverse viewpoints.
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The Decline of Print Media
The media landscape has undergone a significant transformation in recent decades. The circulation of printed media has steadily declined. In 1960, there was one newspaper sold for every two adults. By 2008, this ratio had dropped to one newspaper for every five adults, reflecting a shift towards digital sources of information.
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The Rise of Broadcast Media
The decline of print media coincides with the rise of broadcast media, particularly television and, more recently, online news platforms. These sources have become the primary means by which Americans access news and information.
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The Power of Television in Shaping Perceptions
The 1960 presidential debate between Richard Nixon and John F. Kennedy highlighted the power of television in shaping public perception. While radio listeners perceived Nixon as the winner, television viewers overwhelmingly believed Kennedy had won, demonstrating the impact of visual presentation in politics.
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Government Regulation of the Airwaves
The use of public airwaves for broadcasting is subject to government regulation. The Federal Communications Commission (FCC), established in 1934, is responsible for regulating the use of airwaves, ensuring responsible broadcasting practices.
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The FCC grants licenses to broadcasters with the stipulation that they serve the public interest and adhere to fair treatment rules, promoting balanced and unbiased reporting.
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To prevent media consolidation, regulations implemented in 1996 limit ownership of broadcast markets, prohibiting any single entity from owning more than thirty-five percent of the market.
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Generational Differences in News Consumption
Younger generations, particularly those aged 29 and under, are less likely to rely on traditional newspapers for information about political campaigns and issues. They increasingly turn to online platforms and social media for news.
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The 24-Hour News Cycle and CNN
The advent of 24-hour news channels, pioneered by Cable News Network (CNN), revolutionized news delivery. These channels provide constant coverage of events, delivering news to the public and political leaders in real-time.
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Narrowcasting: Targeting Specific Audiences
Narrowcasting refers to media programming that focuses on a specific topic and targets a particular audience. This approach allows media outlets to cater to niche interests and demographics.
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Media Consolidation and Corporate Ownership
The media landscape is increasingly dominated by large conglomerates that control multiple news outlets, including both print and broadcast media. This consolidation raises concerns about media diversity and the potential for biased reporting.
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The Profit Motive in News Broadcasting
Television networks, driven by the need to attract large audiences and generate revenue, often prioritize stories that are entertaining or sensational. This focus on profitability can sometimes overshadow the importance of in-depth reporting on critical issues.
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The pursuit of profit significantly influences how journalists define news, determine news sources, and present information to the public.
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Embedded Journalism: Reporting from the Front Lines
Embedded journalism, where reporters are stationed with military units during conflicts, provides immediate, on-the-ground coverage. However, this practice also raises concerns about objectivity, as journalists may develop close relationships with the soldiers they cover.
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Bias in News Reporting
While concerns about bias in news reporting persist, research suggests that reporting is not systematically skewed towards a particular ideology. The most prevalent bias is the tendency to prioritize stories that will attract a larger audience.
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The Media’s Role in Shaping the Policy Agenda
The media plays a crucial role in shaping the policy agenda, which encompasses the issues that government officials and policymakers prioritize. By highlighting certain issues and downplaying others, the media influences public discourse and the government’s response.
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Policy entrepreneurs and lobbyists often try to influence the media’s coverage of issues, aiming to shape public opinion and advance their agendas.
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Television and the Rise of Individualism in Politics
The rise of television as the dominant medium for political communication has contributed to a greater emphasis on individualism in American politics. Candidates often focus on their personal narratives and appeal directly to voters through television appearances.
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Negative Campaigning in the Television Age
Television advertising has become a staple of political campaigns. However, a significant portion of these ads, often exceeding two-thirds, are negative in nature, focusing on attacking opponents rather than promoting constructive policy proposals.
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Media Ownership: A Global Perspective
In contrast to the United States, where most media outlets are privately owned, many countries have government-owned major television outlets. This difference in ownership structure raises questions about media independence and the potential for government influence on reporting.
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Government Control of Information During Wartime
During times of war, governments often restrict media access and control the flow of information. The first Gulf War provides a notable example, where the U.S. government imposed significant limitations on reporters’ freedom of movement and reporting.
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Chapter 8: Political Parties
Party Competition and the Two-Party System
Party competition, primarily between the Democrats and Republicans, is a defining feature of the American political system. These two major parties vie for control of public offices, shaping the nation’s political landscape.
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The Party-in-Government
The party-in-government comprises elected officials who identify as members of a particular political party. These individuals represent their party’s interests and work to advance its policy agenda within the government.
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Defining Political Parties
A political party can be defined as a group of individuals united by shared political goals who seek to gain control of the government through electoral victories. They field candidates for office, develop policy platforms, and mobilize voters to support their cause.
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The Party-in-the-Electorate
The party-in-the-electorate consists of citizens who identify with a particular political party. These individuals may participate in party activities, vote for the party’s candidates, and contribute to its financial resources.
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Party Nominations and Candidate Selection
A party nomination represents the official endorsement of a candidate by a political party. Parties use various methods, such as primaries and caucuses, to select their nominees for public office.
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Rational-Choice Theory and Voter Behavior
Rational-choice theory suggests that individuals make decisions, including voting decisions, based on a rational calculation of their self-interest. Voters, according to this theory, will choose candidates and policies they believe will best serve their personal interests.
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Party Identification and Voter Loyalty
Party identification refers to an individual’s psychological attachment to a particular political party. This identification often shapes their voting behavior and political attitudes.
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Appealing to the Median Voter
According to political scientist Anthony Downs, rational political parties will strive to appeal to the median voter, the voter whose preferences fall in the middle of the political spectrum. By adopting moderate policy positions, parties aim to maximize their electoral support.
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Trends in Party Identification
In recent elections, there has been a decline in the percentage of Americans who identify with either major party. This trend suggests a growing number of independent voters who do not align themselves with either Democrats or Republicans.
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Types of Primary Elections
Open primaries allow voters to choose on election day whether they want to participate in the Democratic or Republican primary, regardless of their party affiliation.
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Closed primaries restrict participation to voters who are registered members of the party holding the primary.
Blanket primaries, used in some states, allow voters to participate in the primaries of multiple parties for different offices on the same ballot.
The Structure of American Political Parties
American national parties are best described as decentralized organizations composed of state and local party chapters. These chapters operate with a significant degree of autonomy.
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The national convention represents the highest decision-making body of each major party. It is held every four years to nominate the party’s presidential and vice-presidential candidates and to establish the party platform.
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The national committee oversees the day-to-day operations of the national party between conventions. It is responsible for fundraising, campaign strategy, and party-building activities.
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The national chairperson is the head of the national committee and is responsible for managing the party’s daily activities.
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Critical Elections and Party Realignment
Critical elections are rare events that mark a significant shift in the political landscape. They are often associated with major national crises or traumas that lead to a party realignment, where the balance of power between the major parties changes.
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The Great Depression of the 1930s provides a prime example of a critical election. The economic crisis led to a realignment of voters, with the Democrats replacing the Republicans as the dominant party.
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The First Two-Party System
The United States’ first two-party system emerged in the late 18th century, with the Federalists, led by Alexander Hamilton, and the Democratic-Republicans, led by Thomas Jefferson, vying for power.
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The Rise of the Democratic Party
Andrew Jackson, elected president in 1828, is considered the first Democrat to hold the office. His presidency marked the beginning of the modern Democratic Party.
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The Republican Party and the Issue of Slavery
The Republican Party emerged in the 1850s as a direct response to the issue of slavery. The party advocated for the abolition of slavery and attracted a coalition of anti-slavery advocates, former Whigs, and disaffected Democrats.
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The Republican Era (1860-1932)
Following the Civil War, the Republican Party enjoyed a long period of dominance in American politics. This era came to an end with the Great Depression, which ushered in a new era of Democratic control.
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The New Deal Coalition and Democratic Dominance
Franklin D. Roosevelt‘s presidency (1933-1945) marked a significant turning point in American political history. His New Deal programs, implemented in response to the Great Depression, forged a powerful coalition of voters that kept the Democratic Party in power for decades.
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The Era of Divided Government
Since the late 1960s, the United States has experienced an era of divided government, where one party controls the presidency while the other party controls one or both houses of Congress. This division of power often leads to gridlock and difficulty in passing legislation.
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The Decline of Party Loyalty
Over the past three decades, there has been a noticeable decline in party loyalty among American voters. More and more voters identify as independents and are willing to vote for candidates from different parties in the same election.
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Third Parties and the 2000 Election
Third-party candidates can sometimes play a significant role in elections, even if they do not win. In the 2000 presidential election, Green Party candidate Ralph Nader arguably siphoned off enough votes from Democratic candidate Al Gore to tip the election in favor of Republican candidate George W. Bush.
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The Two-Party System: Advantages and Disadvantages
The American two-party system has both advantages and disadvantages. On the one hand, it promotes stability and moderation by forcing the two major parties to compete for the support of a broad range of voters. On the other hand, it can limit voter choice and make it difficult for third parties to gain traction.
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The Responsible Party Model
Advocates of the responsible party model believe that political parties should present clear and distinct policy platforms to voters. They argue that this approach allows voters to make informed choices and holds parties accountable for their actions in government.
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Linkage Institutions: Connecting Citizens to Government
Linkage institutions play a crucial role in a democratic society by connecting citizens to their government. These institutions, which include political parties, interest groups, and the media, provide avenues for citizens to express their preferences and hold elected officials accountable.
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Ticket Splitting and Voter Independence
Ticket splitting, the practice of voting for candidates from different parties for different offices in the same election, has become increasingly common in recent decades. This trend reflects a decline in party loyalty and a willingness among voters to consider candidates based on their individual merits rather than solely on their party affiliation.
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Closed Primaries and Voter Registration
Closed primaries, which restrict participation to registered party members, are designed to prevent voters from one party from influencing the nomination process of another party. However, they also have the effect of excluding independent voters from participating in primary elections.
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Critical Elections and Political Change
Critical elections are watershed moments in American political history that lead to significant shifts in party alignments and policy agendas. These elections often reflect deep divisions within society and result in lasting changes to the political landscape.
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The Enduring Legacy of Divided Government
Since 1968, the United States has experienced an extended period of divided government, with neither major party able to maintain consistent control of both the presidency and Congress. This division of power has had a profound impact on American politics, often leading to gridlock and partisan bickering.
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Chapter 9: Campaigns and Voting Behavior
The Presidential Nomination Process
The road to the White House begins with a series of precinct-level presidential caucuses, where party members gather to select delegates to county caucuses or conventions. These delegates then choose delegates to the state convention, which ultimately selects the delegates who will represent the state at the national convention.
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Today, the majority of delegates to each major party’s national convention are chosen through state presidential primaries, where voters cast ballots directly for their preferred candidates.
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The McGovern-Fraser Commission and Democratic Reforms
Following the tumultuous 1968 Democratic National Convention, the McGovern-Fraser Commission was established to reform the party’s nomination process. The commission’s recommendations led to greater transparency and inclusivity in delegate selection, giving more power to rank-and-file party members.
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Frontloading and the Importance of Early Primaries
Frontloading refers to the tendency of states to schedule their presidential primaries and caucuses earlier in the election year in an attempt to exert greater influence on the nomination process. This practice has led to a compressed primary calendar, with candidates facing intense pressure to perform well in the early contests.
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Momentum and the Importance of Early Victories
Early victories in primaries and caucuses can provide candidates with significant momentum, generating positive media coverage, attracting more campaign contributions, and boosting their standing in public opinion polls.
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Criticisms of the Primary System
The current presidential primary system has faced criticism for several reasons, including the disproportionate influence of early contests, the outsized role of money in campaigns, low voter turnout, and the difficulty for lesser-known candidates to break through.
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Demographics of Primary Voters
Voters who participate in presidential primaries and caucuses tend to be older, more affluent, and more ideologically extreme than the general electorate. This difference in demographics can result in nominees who are not necessarily representative of the broader electorate.
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Low Turnout in Caucuses
Presidential caucuses, which require a greater time commitment from participants than primaries, typically have very low voter turnout, often in the single digits. This low turnout raises concerns about the representativeness of the delegates chosen through caucuses.
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Arguments for a National Primary
Proponents of a national primary, where all states would hold their primaries on the same day, argue that it would simplify the nomination process, increase voter turnout, reduce the influence of money, and ensure that all states have an equal say in choosing the nominees.
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Media Coverage of Presidential Campaigns
Media coverage of presidential campaigns often focuses on the horse race aspects of the race, such as poll numbers, campaign strategies, and candidate gaffes, rather than on substantive policy issues. This emphasis on the superficial aspects of campaigns can leave voters less informed about the candidates’ positions on important issues.
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Campaign Finance Regulation
The Federal Election Campaign Act (FECA), passed in 1971, established limits on campaign contributions and expenditures and created the Federal Election Commission (FEC) to enforce campaign finance laws.
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FECA requires candidates to disclose the sources of their campaign contributions and how they spend their campaign funds, promoting transparency in campaign finance.
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The Presidential Election Campaign Fund
The Presidential Election Campaign Fund, financed by voluntary contributions from taxpayers, provides public funding for eligible presidential candidates. Candidates who accept public funding agree to abide by spending limits.
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Matching Funds
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15. According to Herbert Alexander’s “doctrine of sufficiency,” candidates need to spend enough money to win, but not always need to spend more money than their opponents might do.
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16. The selective perception of most voters means that they pay most attention to things they already agree with and interpret the events according to their own predispositions.
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17. Today’s campaigns promote individualism in American politics. It allows politicians to decide on their own to run, to raise their own campaign funds, to build their own personal organizations, and to make promises about how they will act when are in office.
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18. The idea that a citizen should always vote and support democratic process of the government is a belief in the notion of civic duty.
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19. According to the exit polls, the war on terrorism was a major reason for the voters to re-electing President George W. Bush in 2004.
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20. Voter registration, around the turn of the twentieth century, was adopted by the states primarily to prevent corruptions associated with stuffing ballot boxes.
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21. The voter turnout rates are higher among the states that allow voter registration at the polls on election-day than in other states.
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22. People with higher than average education are more likely to vote than people of lower educational levels.
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23. Many voters have come to feel that they no longer need parties to guide their electoral choices because technology makes it possible for them to evaluate and make their own decisions about the candidates.
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24. Research by Miller, Wattenberg, and Malanchuk has shown that, for a voter, the three most important characteristics of candidate image are integrity, reliability, and competence.
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25. Research on voting behavior has shown that policy voting has become somewhat common than it was in the past.
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26. Except in Maine and Nebraska, the Electoral College system operates in each state on the principle of allocating electoral votes on the basis of winner-take-all.
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27. If a presidential candidate does not receive a majority of Electoral College votes, then the president is chosen by the House with one vote for each state.
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28. The greater the policy differences between the candidates, the more likely voters will be able to steer government policies by their choices.
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29. The official endorsement of a candidate by a political party is called a nomination.
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30. Most delegates to the Democratic and Republican conventions are selected in presidential primaries. Their official endorsement of a presidential candidate is called nomination by political party.
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31. What makes the New Hampshire primary so important is simply the fact that it is the first one in the nation.
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32. The recent tendency of states to hold primaries early in the calendar year in order to capitalize on media attention is called frontloading.
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33. Presidential nominees of each party can get a fixed amount of money from the federal treasury to cover all their official campaign expenses for the general election if they limit themselves to spending only that public money.
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34. All candidates for federal office are required to file their periodic reports with the FEC, listing who contributed for their campaigns and how the money was spent.
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35. Party identification is a significant influence on voting behavior, regardless of what happens in a campaign.
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36. According to Anthony Downs, rational people vote when they perceive meaningful policy differences between the candidates.
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37. The mandate theory of elections suggests that the winning candidate has a mandate from the people to carry out his/her promises/platform.
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38. It is possible for the Electoral College system to choose a president who did not win a majority of the popular vote.
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39. In 2000, George W. Bush became president without winning a majority of the popular vote.
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40. Critics of a national primary election method argue that it is possible that more candidates would not receive a majority vote, thus a run-off election would be needed.
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