Punctuation Mastery: Rules and Usage
Comma
The comma indicates a short pause. Use it in the following cases:
- To separate elements (words, phrases, etc.) of an enumeration, excluding the conjunctions and, or, or not.
- Before and after a parenthetical phrase.
- Before, after, or before and after a vocative.
- To indicate the elision of a verb (optional if it causes a syncopated phrase).
- When an item that doubles has been previously mentioned as a pronoun.
- When changing the location of a subordinate phrase or clause, including phrases like therefore, however, etc.
- To clarify ambiguity or improve readability.
- Between the integral and decimal parts of a number.
Do not use a comma between subject and verb or between verb and complement, unless there is a clause.
Point
The point (period) indicates a full stop. Use it in the following cases:
- At the end of a sentence with complete meaning.
- Between the hours and minutes when indicating time.
- To separate the order number from the title of a section it introduces (except in internal references). For example, 2.1. The Society and New Technologies [but: See section 2.1 of the module.]
Do not use a point in figures indicating years or order (e.g., Descriptive grammar). Do not use a point after question marks, exclamation marks, titles, subtitles, or dates.
Semicolon
The semicolon indicates a longer pause than a comma and a shorter pause than a point (no space before the semicolon). Use it in the following cases:
- When separating closely related independent clauses that are more connected than sentences but less so than clauses separated by commas.
- To separate elements of an enumeration containing internal commas. In this case, a comma usually precedes the final element introduced by and, or, or not.
Colon
Colons indicate a certain subordination of the second element to the first (no space before the colon). Use them in the following cases:
- To introduce a cause, demonstration, examples, numbering, etc.
- To introduce direct quotations or reproductions.
Do not use colons when introducing a series of elements that form a paragraph if the sentence continues afterward; instead, use dashes or brackets around the clause. Do not use colons when they are unnecessary and break the continuity of the sentence (e.g., after or are).
Ellipsis
The ellipsis (three dots with spaces between them) indicates an omission or suspension of thought. Use it in the following cases:
- To indicate that an enumeration is not exhaustive.
- To indicate that a sentence is unfinished due to hesitation, reluctance, etc.
Do not use etc. after an ellipsis, as they serve the same function.
Question Mark
The question mark indicates a question. It is placed at the end of a sentence (except in special cases where it is needed within a sentence and there are no other question indicators). Do not use a point after a question mark. Do not leave a space between the word and the question mark.
Exclamation Mark
The exclamation mark indicates strong emotion. It is placed at the end of a sentence. Do not use a point after an exclamation mark. Do not leave a space between the word and the exclamation mark.
En Dash
The en dash is used in the following cases:
- To enclose a paragraph, clarification, thought, or addition (sometimes interchangeable with parentheses).
- To indicate speaker contributions in dialogues, going beyond the formal approach of a narrator.
Do not use a final en dash with a point, especially if it ends a sentence.
Hyphen
In addition to indicating word breaks at the end of a line, the hyphen is used in the following cases:
- In some compound words.
- To separate time periods and dates.
- To join words and figures, often substituting a preposition or combination. When joining single words, do not use spaces; when joining multi-word elements, use spaces before and after the hyphen.
Parentheses
Parentheses enclose complementary information, an interjection, or a clarification (sometimes interchangeable with en dashes).
Single Quotes
Single quotes are used in the following cases:
- To indicate the meaning of a word or phrase.
- To translate the title of a work (e.g., Konflikt und Handlungskontrolle [‘Conflict and Control of Action’]).
Double Quotes
Double quotes are used in the following cases:
- To reproduce exact words spoken or written by someone.
- To indicate a special meaning, emphasis, irony, a personal touch, a double entendre, etc.
- To create pseudo-citations or quotes that are not attributed to a specific source.
- To indicate titles of articles, chapters, poems, songs, etc., that are part of a larger work (book, magazine, newspaper, album), and presentation titles when the word is not part of the name (e.g., Breadcrumbs is “the evening”).
Do not use double quotes for functions better served by italics or bold (e.g., plane, not “plane”). Do not use double quotes for names of companies or other entities.