Real Socialism: The USSR Under Stalin and Khrushchev
The term “real socialism” in the political vocabulary of the 1960s has a dual nature. Real socialism, originating from the Soviet world, aimed to define what was possible and that only socialism could work. It represented the true communist tradition. It sought to distance itself from criticisms of the USSR, which suggested that there could be alternatives to Soviet socialism.
The Soviet Union emerged from World War II as a major regional power with significant international influence. The territory of the Soviet Union expanded after the Second World War, incorporating the Baltic republics, Moldova, the Rods Islands, and parts of Poland and Czechoslovakia. This expansion stretched the Soviet Union’s reach from Poland to Japan. Furthermore, the Soviet Union gained considerable international influence, particularly in Asia, and saw the adoption of similar systems in North Africa (Egypt, Algeria) and in the Americas (Cuba). As a federation of states with a vast territory, the USSR entered a new cycle of development following Stalin’s rise in 1924, defined by the idea of “socialism in one country.”
The Russian Revolution was initially envisioned as the spark for a world revolution. However, Stalin altered this vision, theorizing that socialism was achievable within a single country. Consequently, both the Soviet Union and its satellite states developed political and economic systems that were largely self-contained. This created an autonomous universe, almost self-sufficient economically and politically, with a stated policy of promoting world revolution, but in practice, it was more of an autarkic regime than a proponent of revolutionary messianism.
From a political perspective, Stalin’s rise to power in 1924 marked a hardening of the Soviet regime. He eliminated all internal plurality within the Communist Party, using violence when necessary. Stalin consolidated power, removing the plurality of parties and targeting traditional leaders of the revolution. The Leninist communist utopia of a classless society degenerated into an autocratic dictatorship under Stalin. The key features of this system were a one-party regime, the elimination of the separation of powers, and the merging of party and state.
The operational organization of the Soviet Union was structured as follows: At the base were the Soviets, or assemblies of peasants, soldiers, and workers. Above them was the Central Committee, elected by all the sectoral committees during party conferences. However, in practice, the Politburo became the real decision-making body, taking precedence over the cabinet. Above all of this, from 1927 onwards, Stalin acted as both head of government and head of state, consolidating all power within his person.
But what kind of regime was Stalinism? This was a hotly debated topic during the Cold War. One tactic used to justify the US Cold War stance was to draw comparisons between Nazism and Stalinism, classifying them both as totalitarian regimes. Stalin’s objective was to achieve, at all costs, the goals set during the revolution. The work of Lenin’s government and Stalin’s Russia was to transform the country into an industrial power and create a communist nation in every sense of the word. During World War II, analysts generally agree that a degree of opening occurred within the regime, both economically and politically. This opening was necessary to secure support during a time of extraordinary effort, with the country partially occupied by the Germans. It included freedom of worship, the suspension of political purges, the release of many political prisoners, and permission for the sale of agricultural products on the open market. Before this period, certain groups believed that the system could evolve towards greater openness, and this was a key factor in Roosevelt’s decision to provide financial aid. However, the possibility of further opening, which had been encouraged by some, was cut short after the war, largely due to the Cold War. Following World War II, a campaign of glorification of Stalin and the Soviet system was initiated.