Reformation Era: Causes, Reformers, and Counter-Reformation

Posted on Feb 8, 2025 in Religion

The Protestant Reformation

During the 16th century, the Protestant Reformation spread across Europe. It caused a collapse of the religious unity that the Catholic Church had upheld in Western Europe. As a result, the Catholic Church launched the Counter-Reformation.

Causes of the Reformation

  • Disdain for the papacy and clergy: The Roman Catholic Church was very powerful in Europe. However, many believed that popes were mainly concerned with their own interests; bishops lived a life of luxury and did not reside in their dioceses; the lower-ranking clergy lacked education, did not preach, and failed to set a moral example; and many religious orders did not adhere to the established rules.
  • The abuses of the Church: These included nepotism, or favoritism by the high-ranking clergy towards members of their own family when allocating ecclesiastic positions; Nicolaism, or common-law marriage as practiced by many priests; and simony, or the sale of ecclesiastical posts. The pope, bishops, and cardinals also sold forgiveness for sins to whoever bought a document of indulgences.

Reformers and Reformations

  • The Lutheran Reformation: The renewal of the Church began in Germany, where the Augustinian monk Martin Luther rejected the sale of indulgences carried out by Pope Leo X to pay for the building work being undertaken at the Vatican. In 1517, Luther displayed his 95 theses against the sale of indulgences and other aspects of Catholicism. The pope condemned and excommunicated Luther in 1521. Lutheranism was based on justification by faith and a free interpretation of the Bible. Luther rejected papal infallibility, accepted only two of the sacraments (Baptism and the Eucharist), suppressed the cult of the Virgin Mary and the saints, and simplified the liturgy. Lutheran doctrine spread through a number of German states and central and northern Europe.
  • The Calvinist Reformation: The Calvinist doctrine was preached by John Calvin from 1536 onwards in Geneva (Switzerland). It was based on the belief in predestination, according to which people are destined by God to be saved or condemned. This doctrine was popular amongst the bourgeoisie of the Netherlands, Switzerland, Scotland, France, and England. The Calvinists were known as Huguenots in France and Puritans in England.
  • The Anglican Reformation: The Anglican doctrine emerged in England. In 1534, King Henry VIII declared himself head of the Church of England following the papal rejection of his request for a divorce from his wife, Catherine of Aragon.

The Catholic Counter-Reformation

To halt the spread of the Protestant Reformation, the Catholic Church began its own reform, known as the Counter-Reformation. It had two principal features:

  • The Council of Trent (1545-1563): The council was created by Pope Paul III, and it defined Catholic doctrine, which was disseminated in the form of the catechism: good deeds were needed to attain salvation, only the church could interpret the bible; the pope was infallible; there were seven sacraments; the saints and Virgin were subjects of devotion, etc. The council also set out rules to halt disdain for the clergy, such as requirements for bishops to live in their dioceses. The creation of seminaries to train priests was also promoted, amongst other measures.
  • The Society of Jesus: It was founded by Saint Ignatius of Loyola in 1540 and was an important source of support for the Counter-Reformation. Its members had to swear a special vow of obedience to the pope. They received sound theological training and dedicated themselves to preaching and education.