Regency, Liberalism, and the Carlist Wars in Spain
The Regency, Liberalism, and the Carlist Wars
Following the death of Fernando VII, his daughter Isabel succeeded him, under the regency of his widow, Maria Cristina of Naples. The Pragmatic Sanction overturned Salic law, sparking protests from Carlist parties, staunch supporters of absolutism. This ignited the First Carlist War, fundamentally rooted in the desire to maintain absolutism.
The Ideology of Carlismo
The ideology of Carlismo centered on the unification of the throne and the altar, advocating for absolutism, opposing liberal centralism, and defending traditional charters. For many, the Carlist War held a significant religious dimension. Furthermore, the rebels predominantly controlled pro-provincial regions. The Carlist struggle against the Liberals represented, in part, a conflict between rural areas and urban centers. Farmers, gentry, and craftsmen, wary of the changes to the traditional economy that liberalism sought to introduce, bolstered the ranks of the rebellion.
Carlist Military Restrictions
Carlist military strength faced limitations. Carlismo found greater support in specific provinces, particularly the Basque Country and Navarre, while its influence in other regions like Catalonia, Aragon, Valencia, Galicia, and Castilla la Vieja remained confined to certain areas.
Political Transition
The Carlist uprising spurred a political transition. Development Minister Javier de Burgos established the provincial division of Spain into 49 provinces, each governed by a political leader, laying a foundation for liberal centralization. The moderate liberal MartÃnez de la Rosa crafted the Royal Charter (1834), which transitioned the monarchy from absolute to constitutional, albeit not a constitution derived from national sovereignty or the separation of powers. It established two chambers: the Chamber of Peers and the Chamber of Estates-Attorneys, with purely advisory functions.
Division of the Liberals
This development caused a division within the liberal movement. Moderates and liberals demanded a constitution rooted in national sovereignty, while progressive liberals looked to the Constitution of 1812 as their model. In 1834-35, the stalled Carlist War and the demands from the urban middle and lower classes for a fully liberal regime triggered a revolutionary movement. Revolutionary Boards rejected the statute and called for the Regent to convene Cortes, ensure freedom of the press, and enact a new electoral law.
Mendizabal Government
The radicalization and spread of the revolutionary movement forced Maria Cristina to appoint a progressive government under Mendizabal. This government implemented measures to dismantle manorial systems and solidify the liberal regime, including the abolition of estates, entails, and tithes; the abolition of the Mesta; the abolition of guild privileges; and the implementation of freedom of commerce and industry. It also confiscated regular clergy property to finance the civil war and dismantle the economic power and counter-revolutionary influence of the Church.
Triumph of the Liberal Regime
Entails and domains were abolished, but land ownership largely remained with the nobility. The triumph of the liberal regime in Spain resulted from a pact between the bourgeoisie and the landed nobility. Following the Sergeants of La Granja mutiny in 1836, the ruling power restored the Constitution of 1812. The convened Cortes decided to revise the text, leading to the adoption of the Constitution of 1837, a compromise between the 1812 Constitution and the Royal Statute. It recognized the principle of national sovereignty (though only in the preamble), shared legislative power between the King and the Cortes, granted the King absolute veto power, established bicameralism, and based suffrage on census. The religious provisions were less stringent than those of 1812.
End of the Carlist War
The Carlist War concluded in 1839 with the Vergara agreement between General Espartero and General Maroto. This agreement incorporated Carlist army officers into the Elizabethan army and committed to recommending to the Cortes the recognition of Basque-Navarrese charters. The regency of Maria Cristina ended due to a confrontation with Espartero over the municipalities law, forcing her into exile. During Espartero’s regency (1840-1843), he faced numerous difficulties as moderates conspired to replace Maria Cristina. In 1841, Espartero called for the confiscation of clergy property. The internal situation further deteriorated with the signing of a free-trade agreement with England. A vast military movement, uniting moderates and progressives, ultimately ended the Espartero regime, with Narvaez emerging as the new strongman. This marked the beginning of the reign of Isabel II.