Regency of María Cristina (1885-1902): Politics, Regionalism, and Nationalism
The Regency of María Cristina (1885–1902)
Political Developments
Upon the death of Alfonso XII, his second wife, María Cristina, assumed the regency with the support of the dynastic parties and signed the Pact of Pardo. She empowered the Liberals between 1885 and 1890, leading to the liberalization of the regime and the development of several reforms. The Commercial Code and Civil Code were approved, aligning the law with the principles of economic and political liberalism. Social reforms included the Law of Associations, which supported the growth of anti-dynastic forces; the introduction of jury trials; and the abolition of slavery in Cuba. In 1890, universal male suffrage was adopted. Around 1890, the Conservatives returned to power, implementing a protectionist economic policy that benefited the Catalan and Basque industrialists and the Castilian cereal bourgeoisie. Social problems received little attention during this period.
International politics continued along the same lines as during Alfonso XII’s reign. However, after 1895, successive governments had to address serious conflicts affecting Spain’s colonial society.
Turnismo and Electoral Fraud
Cánovas’ system of turnismo was based on alternating governments between the two dynastic parties. To ensure this rotation, electoral fraud was employed, undermining democratic procedures. Local bosses played a key role, manipulating elections to guarantee the desired outcome for the ruling party. The king would appoint a new government based on the pre-determined rotation. The chosen party would then submit a list of members to provincial governors, who, with the help of local bosses, imposed their will on the province. Voter registration was manipulated, votes were coerced, and results were altered. The members of parliament were primarily from the gentry and aristocracy, forming an oligarchy. This system, despite its flaws, fostered political stability.
Regionalism and Nationalism
During the regency, regionalist and nationalist movements emerged in Catalonia, the Basque Country, and Galicia. Intellectuals in Valencia and Andalusia also defended regional pluralism. These movements arose from various factors, including historical, cultural, social, and economic conditions specific to each region. They all advocated for linguistic, cultural, and institutional recognition against the backdrop of a uniform and liberal centralist state, which struggled to foster a unified Spanish nationalism.
Catalan Nationalism
Catalan nationalism originated from a cultural renaissance that revived national consciousness and economic change. Two schools of thought emerged: federalist Republicans and Catholic traditionalist conservatives. Valenti Almirall, a federalist, developed early theoretical formulations of Catalanism and founded the Centre Català to advocate for autonomy. He also led protests against free trade treaties. This political project ultimately failed, and conservative Catalanism gained prominence. Proponents of a historicist, traditionalist, and Catholic regionalism, such as Mañé, Flaquer, and Bishop Torras i Bages, gained the support of the industrial bourgeoisie. In this context, Enric Prat de la Riba founded the Lliga de Catalunya. In 1891, the Catalan Union was formed, producing the first Catalan political program, known as the Bases de Manresa. The politicization of Catalan society became widespread in the last decade of the 19th century. After the loss of the colonial market in 1898, the industrial bourgeoisie became actively involved in Catalan politics. From the early 20th century, Catalan nationalists (led by conservatives) sought political autonomy within a decentralized Spanish state.
Basque Nationalism
Basque nationalism arose as a reaction against the abolition of traditional privileges. The movement aimed to defend suppressed institutions and revive the Basque language and culture. Rapid socioeconomic and cultural transformation, driven by mining and industrial development and increased immigration, shaped the region. Vasquismo emerged, emphasizing the Basque language, traditions, privileges, Catholicism, and an idealized rural life. Sabino Arana established the first Basque nationalist political agenda, emphasizing race, language, traditions, and Catholicism as defining elements of the Basque nation, for which he claimed sovereignty. In 1895, he founded the Basque Nationalist Party (PNV). By the end of the century, the PNV had moderated its radicalism and won its first seats in parliament, attracting support from the urban and rural middle classes.
Galician Nationalism
Initially limited to an intellectual minority, Galician nationalism began as a cultural and literary movement seeking solutions to Galicia’s economic and cultural backwardness. Prominent figures included Rosalía de Castro and Manuel Murguía, proponents of progressive liberalism. A parallel, more conservative and Catholic strand developed, with Alfredo Brañas as its main exponent. In the early 20th century, a more progressive and combative movement emerged, evolving into a political force represented by figures like Castelao.