Regenerationism and the Generation of ’98
Regenerationism
Regenerationism was a political ideology that sought to revitalize Spanish society and address political corruption through peaceful means, rather than armed revolution. It emphasized practicality and utility over aesthetics. Joaquín Costa, a key figure in the movement, spearheaded its propaganda from 1860 onwards. His major work, “Oligarchy and Caciques,” critiques the political system of the time.
The Generation of ’98
The Generation of ’98 was the first generation of journalists to prioritize truth-seeking and subjective perspectives in their writing, openly addressing the nation’s problems. Regenerationism influenced this generation’s reaction against the prevailing ridicule and anger. Two fundamental concepts emerged:
The Intellectual
The intellectual, possessing a broad humanistic culture, could write about various disciplines without being an expert in any specific field. They critiqued political parties and citizens’ moral values from a subjective standpoint.
The Essay
The essay conveyed subjective thoughts on diverse topics in an argumentative tone, aiming to persuade or convince. Unlike scientific texts, essays presented personal views rather than demonstrable truths. This form became prominent in the writings of the Generation of ’98, who sought solutions to Spain’s problems.
Foreign Influences
Europeanization
Joaquín Costa advocated for the Europeanization of Spain. Regenerationists traveled to England, France, and Germany, seeking inspiration from new inventions, agricultural practices, social ideas, and engineering. Writers of the Generation of ’98, particularly Maeztu, continued this pursuit of Europeanization, drawing inspiration from philosophers like Nietzsche and Schopenhauer.
Philosophy of the Will
Nietzsche and Schopenhauer’s philosophy of the will significantly influenced the Generation of ’98. This philosophy posits that will is the origin of all things, and beings are what they are because of their desires.
- Schopenhauer: Miguel de Unamuno translated Schopenhauer’s “The Will of Nature” into Spanish. Schopenhauer viewed the universe as a collection of opposing wills and lived by the motto “Solitude or Vulgarity.” Pio Baroja embodied this philosophy in his life and, like Schopenhauer, saw the world as a tragicomedy. Schopenhauer considered sex and attraction to women as obstacles to men’s freedom.
- Nietzsche: Nietzsche believed all desires should be fulfilled immediately, rejecting traditional morality and the concept of an afterlife. His philosophy centered on the Superman and the Eternal Return. The Superman is a self-aware individual who accepts mortality and imposes their will on others. The Eternal Return suggests that time is cyclical or that only those willing to relive their lives become Supermen.
The Realist Novel
The 19th century, marked by positivism, emphasized scientific experimentation, rational discourse, and empirical observation. Balzac and Stendhal were prominent French realist philosophers. In Spain, two types of realist novels emerged:
- Thesis Novels: These novels, popular in the 1870s, presented political proposals through narratives. While aiming for realism, they were inherently subjective due to their embedded political ideas. “Doña Perfecta” (1871) is a notable example.
- Naturalistic Novels: These novels sought objectivity and scientific accuracy, treating characters as subjects of sociological and physiological study. Determinism, the study of individuals based on heredity and environment, was central to naturalism. “The Disinherited” by Benito Pérez Galdós is considered the first Spanish naturalistic novel. Spanish naturalism was less radical than its French counterpart. Leopoldo Alas “Clarín” explored characters through their environment and family history, notably in “The Judge’s Wife,” a significant work in Spanish literature.
The Novels of 1902
Four novels published in 1902 marked a departure from the realist tradition:
- “Sonata de Otoño” by Ramón del Valle-Inclán: A symbolist prose novel focusing on rhythm and musicality.
- “Amor y pedagogía” by Miguel de Unamuno: A satirical novel critiquing positivism.
- “La Voluntad” by Azorín: An essayistic novel criticizing the Restoration period.
- “Camino de perfección” by Pío Baroja: A novel exploring themes of individualism and self-discovery.
Characteristics of the 1902 Novels
- Genre Mixing: The 20th century saw the rise of the essay and the blending of genres. The 1902 novels were hybrid works, incorporating elements of both novels and essays.
- Thinning of the Action: Unlike realist and naturalist novels, the 1902 novels prioritized character psychology, setting, and thematic exploration over plot.
- Impressionist Landscape: Subjective descriptions of landscapes, reflecting the characters’ moods, replaced the objective descriptions of realist novels.
- Autobiographical Alter Ego: The protagonists often served as autobiographical representations of the authors.