Reign of Catholic Monarchs: Unification & Expansion
Reyes Católicos 5.1: Dynastic Union
The marriage of Isabel of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon created the Hispanic monarchy. The union was dynastic and territorial, not a unified political and administrative entity. Each kingdom retained its laws, institutions, and customs. Boundaries imposed duties on goods, courts met independently, and currencies differed. However, Ferdinand and Isabella’s reign brought significant changes, centralizing power. Justice was dispensed jointly, royal decrees were signed by both, and kingdoms swore allegiance to both monarchs. This laid the foundation for an authoritarian monarchy.
5.2 Reyes Católicos: Conquest of Granada
The campaign against Granada was a crusade against infidels. Ten years of war, with unprecedented military and economic effort from the Crown, Church, and nobility, led to Granada’s surrender in 1492. Initially, Muslims under Christian rule were guaranteed their customs, property, law, and religion. However, the monarchs later sought religious uniformity, promoting forced baptisms (resulting in Moriscos), and in 1502, forcing Castilian Muslims to choose between baptism or exile. By 1518, their language and cultural habits were banned, rupturing relations between cultures.
5.4 State Organization under the Catholic Monarchs
The Catholic Monarchs aimed for an authoritarian monarchy, imposing their will on nobility and clergy. New power organs were created: Magistrados in Castile transferred royal orders to local authorities. In Aragon, viceroys represented the monarch. The Royal Council of Castile advised the monarchs. Other councils with specific functions were created. The Holy Brotherhood, a standing army, was established. The Royal Council and other councils gradually assumed legislative functions, diminishing the role of the courts.
5.5 Expansion under the Catholic Monarchs
Ferdinand and Isabella laid the foundations for the Spanish Empire. Alliances with England, the Netherlands, and the Papacy consolidated power against France and extended influence in Europe. Mediterranean policy focused on controlling trade and curbing French power, regaining Roussillon, Sardinia, and Naples. Campaigns against the Turks aimed to expand Christianity and protect trade routes. Conquests secured control of North African coasts, including Melilla, Peñón de la Gomera, Oran, Algiers, and Tripoli.
5.6 Discovery of America
The fall of the Byzantine Empire complicated Mediterranean trade, leading to the rise of Atlantic routes. Christopher Columbus’s 1492 voyage, sponsored by Ferdinand and Isabella, aimed to reach India but led to the discovery of America. The monarchs’ motives were religious expansion and economic gain. The Capitulations of Santa Fe made Columbus viceroy of discovered lands, granting him ten percent of profits. Columbus reached land on October 12, 1492, landing on San Salvador, Cuba, and Haiti. By 1511, the conquest of the large Caribbean islands was nearly complete.
4. Institutions
Royal Council of Castile
Its scope was unclear, leading to frequent appeals. It comprised a chairman, three nobles, and eight or nine letrados. It served as the supreme court and managed government affairs.
Council of Aragon
Similar functions to the Council of Castile.
Council of the Crusade
Funded the war against Granada through crusade bulls, granting pardons for contributions. Funding continued after the war.
Council of Military Orders
Created when Ferdinand gained mastership of the Military Orders of Castile.
Council of the Inquisition
Ecclesiastical court persecuting heretics and false converts, with jurisdiction in all realms.
Courts
Lost significance and were rarely convened, mainly to swear in heirs.
Treasury Administration
Established within the Council of Castile, managing finances and royal property. Introduced a new currency.
Council of the Brotherhood
Prosecuted criminals operating in open ground.
Territorial Administration and Justice
Royal justice was enforced over stately and private justice. Reorganized through Audiencias and Chancillerias. Corregidores were appointed.
6. Discovery of America and Colonization
The fall of the Byzantine Empire made Mediterranean trade difficult, leading to the rise of Atlantic routes. Christopher Columbus’s 1492 voyage, sponsored by Ferdinand and Isabella, aimed to reach India but led to the discovery of America. The monarchs’ motives were religious expansion and economic gain. The Capitulations of Santa Fe made Columbus viceroy of discovered lands, granting him ten percent of profits. Columbus reached land on October 12, 1492, landing on San Salvador, Cuba, and Haiti. By 1511, the conquest of the large Caribbean islands was nearly complete.
2. Colonization
Features: Alteration in both cultures (negative impact in America), population decline (especially in the West Indies due to war, epidemics, and social disruption), migratory movement (continuous migration of Spaniards, including nobles and priests).
Social Structure: Mixed race (white, mestizo, Indian, sambo, black, mulatto). Minority leadership (white) included Guachupines (viceroys, governors, judges). Intermediate strata included bourgeoisie, doctors, clergy, and notaries. Lower strata included artisans and farmers. Black slaves were part of the asiento trade.
Exploitation of Indigenous People: Miscegenation occurred due to the absence of women. Diseases caused more deaths than war. Isabel advocated for evangelization and respect for Indians as subjects, but others like Sepúlveda supported subjugation. Encomiendas (abolished in 1542) led to abuses. The mita was a labor system used in mines. Repartimientos attached Indians to a target with a salary. Naborios, porting, and yanaconas were other forms of Indian labor.
Economic System: Based on agriculture (potatoes, corn, coffee, cocoa) and mining. Annual galleons transported gold, silver, pearls, and spices, sometimes attacked by pirates. Inflation caused bankruptcies during Philip II’s reign.
3. Government and Administration
Organizations based in the metropolis:
Casa de Contratación (Cadiz): Managed Atlantic trade, judicial matters, and hydrography and navigation. Inspected vessels, collected taxes, and issued licenses.
Council of the Indies: Legislative and judicial agency requiring royal approval. Proposed appointments for senior churchmen and civil positions, served as supreme court, and oversaw economic policy.
Institutions in America:
Virreinatos: Governed by viceroys from the Castilian nobility. Two main viceroyalties were New Spain and Peru, with executive and military power.
Audiencias: High-level justice administration, appellate courts, and governmental functions.
Governors: Administered provinces, with captaincy generals in border regions.
Districts: Smaller administrative divisions.
Cabildos: Elected mayors.
Universities: Established for education.