Reign of Catholic Monarchs: Unification, Expansion & Cultural Flourishing
The Catholic Monarchs
The Union of Castile and Aragon
In 1469, Prince Ferdinand, heir of Aragon, and Princess Isabella, sister of King Henry IV of Castile, married. Upon his father’s death in 1479, Ferdinand became King of Aragon. That same year, Isabella became Queen of Castile after a civil war (1475-1479). The union of these territories was dynastic, not a full unification. Both kingdoms retained their own borders, currency, tax systems, laws, and institutions. They were united under one crown and often joined forces, acting jointly in foreign affairs.
Territorial Expansion
After a ten-year war (1482-1492), they conquered the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada, the last Muslim stronghold on the Iberian Peninsula. The Kingdom of Navarre, allied with France, was invaded and incorporated into Castile in 1515, retaining its laws and institutions. The Catholic Monarchs developed a policy of alliances with Portugal through marriages of their daughters, Elizabeth and Mary, to Portuguese royalty. This paved the way for Philip II to inherit Portugal later.
Foreign Policy
The Crown of Aragon continued its traditional intervention in the Mediterranean. In 1505, they conquered the Kingdom of Naples, curbing French expansionist ambitions. They also seized various North African ports like Melilla (1497), Oran, and Bougie (1509) to combat Berber piracy.
Consolidation of Royal Power
Authoritarian Monarchy
The reign of the Catholic Monarchs (1479-1516) established an authoritarian monarchy, especially in Castile. They aimed to impose royal authority over other powers. A viceroy was appointed to govern provinces on behalf of the king. In Castile, the Cortes (parliament) maintained its status, but the nobility’s influence decreased with the creation of councils staffed by jurists selected and paid by the king. A permanent professional army replaced the feudal one, controlled by the monarchy and recruited by royal officials.
Castile: A Livestock Economy
During this period, the Castilian economy focused on livestock, mainly sheep. Castilian wool was a major export to Flanders and England. Large herds required vast pastures, hindering agricultural production. The monarchy protected livestock interests and the powerful Mesta (Cattlemen’s Association). The settlement of America and the influx of gold and silver boosted the economy and trade.
Social Groups
The nobility and clergy were the privileged classes, owning most land and livestock. The nobility’s economic power was maintained through primogeniture, which forbade the sale of family property. Most of the population were landless peasants with a precarious life. In Andalusia, many were tenant farmers, while in Catalonia, some were pagesos de remença, tied to the land in exchange for payment to the lords.
Spanish Renaissance
Humanism and Printing
Printing arrived in Spain in the late 15th century, benefiting cities like Barcelona, Zaragoza, Seville, Valencia, Valladolid, and Toledo. Antonio de Nebrija modernized classical language teaching. Erasmian humanists, notably Luis Vives, focused on educational and welfare reform.
Architectural Styles
- Plateresque: Introduced new decorative elements in Gothic buildings, with delicate reliefs resembling silversmith work.
- Classicist: Fully embraced Renaissance architectural models, using classical columns, lintels, and pediments.
- Herreriano: Characterized by the absence of decoration, straight lines, and cubic volumes, resulting in a bare, sober, and geometric architecture.
Sculpture
Spanish sculpture was noted for its intense religious sentiment and spirituality. Key figures included Alonso Berruguete, a leading Spanish Renaissance sculptor, and Juan de Juni, a French engraver who worked in León, Valladolid, and Segovia.
Painting
Pedro Berruguete (15th century) was the first Castilian painter to show Italian Renaissance influences. In the 16th century, Luis de Morales and Alonso Sánchez Coello emerged. El Greco developed a dramatic style, expressing feelings through cold colors and complex compositions, as seen in The Burial of the Count of Orgaz and The Nobleman with his Hand on his Chest, showcasing the elegance of the Castilian nobility.