Reign of Ferdinand & Isabella: State Organization & Colonial Expansion
The Organization of the State: Institutions of Government
The reign of Ferdinand and Isabella had medieval features while laying the groundwork for a modern state. To increase their power, state administration became more complex and required specialized lawyers and attorneys, mostly from the gentry.
Aragon
- Each kingdom had a viceroy (royal representative) with executive and judicial powers.
- The Council of Aragon was a consultative body and sometimes acted as the Supreme Court.
- Fernando introduced the lottery system for electing municipal officials to limit the power of the oligarchy.
Castile
- The Royal Council became the most important organ, known as the Council of Castile.
- Its members formed specialized committees: the Inquisition, the Order of the Brotherhood, the Treasury, and the Indies.
- In Castilian cities, the monarch’s representative was the mayor, with expertise in political, administrative, and financial matters.
Justice System
- Existing institutions were maintained.
- Castile had two High Courts (Chancillerias) in Valladolid and Granada, and two hearings in Santiago and Seville.
- Fernando established a hearing in each kingdom of the Crown of Aragon.
- Justice was hampered by domains outside royal jurisdiction and diverse, sometimes contradictory, local regulations.
The Inquisition, overseeing Catholic orthodoxy, was the only common body in both kingdoms and sometimes became a political tool for the monarchy.
Outreach: Italian and North African Politics
Fernando continued Aragon’s traditional Mediterranean expansion policy. After Alfonso V’s death in 1458, Naples, ruled by his son Ferrante I, was invaded by French King Charles VIII. Fernando intervened, with Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba (the Great Captain) leading the campaign. He replaced heavy cavalry with mercenary infantry armed with pikes and muskets. In 1503, the Great Captain defeated French troops at Cerignola and Garigliano, forcing their withdrawal. Naples joined the Spanish monarchy in 1504, ruled by a viceroy. The Great Captain returned to Spain, fearing his prestige might lead to him being proclaimed King of Naples. France returned the Catalan Counties of Roussillon and Cerdanya in 1493 to appease Ferdinand.
Castile aimed to conquer Morocco and destroy Barbary pirates (supported by the Turks). Fernando’s Italian interests delayed this, and only Melilla was taken in 1497. After Isabella’s death (1504), Cisneros (regent of Castile) continued the policy, taking Oran in 1509. Clashes between Cisneros and Fernando led to the abandonment of North African politics, with Spanish occupation limited to a few coastal strongholds (Melilla, Oran, Bejaia, Tripoli), which were ineffective against piracy.
Overseas Expansion and Creating a Colonial Empire
The Discovery of America
The discovery and conquest of America was a Spanish venture to find an alternative route to the East Indies. Christopher Columbus, a Genoese sailor, aimed to reach the Indies by sailing west, supporting the idea of a spherical Earth. After the fall of Granada, the Catholic Monarchs (RRCC) accepted Columbus’s proposal, signing the Capitulations of Santa Fe (April 17, 1492). Columbus received the titles of Admiral, Viceroy, and Governor of the discovered lands and one-tenth of the wealth obtained. He sailed from Palos on August 3, 1492, reaching Guanahani (San Salvador) in the Antilles on October 12. He then explored Cuba and Hispaniola before returning to Spain. Columbus made three more voyages between 1493 and 1504, believing he had reached the coasts of Asia. Other explorers, like Amerigo Vespucci, explored South America and realized it was a new continent. A German mapmaker named the continent “America” in 1507.
After Columbus’s first voyage, the Spanish monarchy’s rights to the discovered lands were recognized, based on an imaginary line one hundred leagues west of the Azores and Cape Verde, according to papal arbitration by Alexander VI and the Treaty of Alcaçovas (1479) between Castile and Portugal. The Portuguese, unsatisfied, led to the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494), moving the line 370 leagues west of Cape Verde, allowing Portugal to claim Brazil. Systematic exploration and colonization of the continent followed.
Conquest and Colonization
During Charles I’s reign, the Americas were explored and colonized. Private expeditions, under capitulations with the Crown, set objectives and divided spoils. Hernán Cortés conquered the Aztec Empire in Mexico (1519-1521), using discontent among conquered peoples to gain control and establish administration. Pizarro and Almagro conquered the Inca Empire in Peru (1531-1533). Other explorers expanded knowledge and occupation: Diego de Almagro and Pedro de Valdivia in Chile, Pedro de Mendoza founded Buenos Aires in 1535, Orellana explored the Amazon, and Ferdinand de Soto the Mississippi. In ten years, almost all of America was explored, from California to the Rio de la Plata.
Initially, conquistadors sought gold. Fertile lands attracted settlers, mainly from Andalusia, Extremadura, and the Basque Country. They received land and encomiendas (groups of Indians) for labor and evangelization, though this often led to forced labor. Mines were royal property, granted to individuals in exchange for one-fifth of the ore extracted. Both systems exploited indigenous labor. Crown provisions to prevent abuse were ignored, despite Bartolomé de las Casas’s advocacy for the Indians. The declining indigenous population led to the slave trade from Africa, initially controlled by the Portuguese, then the Dutch.
Government and Administration
(Do not enter selectivity) Spanish rule in America was managed through two institutions:
- Casa de Contratación in Seville: Organized and controlled trade and navigation.
- Council of the Indies: Drafted legislation, managed Indian affairs, appointed officials, and handled economic matters related to America.
American territories were incorporated into the Crown of Castile but, due to distance, were divided into Viceroyalties: New Spain (capital Mexico City) and Peru (capital Lima), separated at Panama. Each viceroyalty was headed by a viceroy, representing the king. Viceroyalties were divided into governorates, ruled by governors subordinate to the viceroys. Contentious border areas had Captaincies General, led by a captain general. Cities, with the majority of settlers, were governed by councils similar to Castilian towns. A magistrate governed the city and its surrounding territory. Audiencias (High Courts) dispensed justice and had administrative functions.
Specific legislation for the new territories, known as the Laws of the Indies, was developed. The first compilation was the Laws of Burgos (1512), aiming to prevent abuse and maintain control, forbidding slavery but forcing Indians to work for settlers under the encomienda system. The New Laws of the Indies (1542) abolished encomiendas, but they persisted until the eighteenth century.