Reign of Isabella II: Political Phases and Transformations
Reign of Isabella II (1843-1868)
During Isabella II’s reign, Spain was largely ruled by moderate factions. This period can be divided into several phases:
Moderate Decade (1844-1854)
In 1844, following Isabella II’s declaration of majority, General Narváez, the moderate leader, formed a government.
1. Political Stability: Narváez established an oligarchic political system with limited popular representation. The Cortes (parliament) were often suspended. The moderates had the backing of social elites. This conservative and undemocratic version of liberalism was supported by figures like Donoso Cortés and Jaime Balmes.
2. Constitution of 1845: Moderate governments enacted the Constitution of 1845, establishing Catholicism as the state religion and limiting freedom of the press. Sovereignty was shared between the monarch and the Cortes, which consisted of a Senate and a Congress of Deputies with restricted suffrage.
3. Centralized Administration: Measures were taken to centralize control, including the government appointment of mayors and provincial prefects. This system was prone to electoral corruption.
4. Legislative Unification: A single system of weights and measures (metric system) was adopted. Public education was regulated, and a new penal code was enacted.
5. Treasury Reform: Mon and Santillán carried out tax reforms, establishing an annual state budget and strengthening indirect taxes. However, budgets had chronic deficits, financed by public debt.
6. Reconciliation with the Catholic Church: A concordat was signed, with the state agreeing to allocate part of its budget to compensate the Church for disentailed properties.
7. End of the Moderate Decade: The authoritarianism of the moderate governments increased, leading to opposition from the Chartists, the progressive left (led by O’Donnell), and the new Democratic Party.
Progressive Biennium (1854-1856)
A revolution in 1854, triggered by General O’Donnell’s pronouncement and the Manifesto of Manzanares, sought electoral and press reforms. The uprising, supported by popular classes barricading Madrid, led to a progressive government.
Progressive Reforms:
- Restoration of press law, electoral law, and local government.
- Draft of the 1856 Constitution.
- Disentailment of 1855 (Madoz Law), affecting Church and municipal properties.
- Economic reorganization, including the creation of the Bank of Spain.
Social conflicts and strikes, particularly in Barcelona, culminated in the general strike of July 1855. This, along with government crises, led to O’Donnell withdrawing support from the progressives and the dismissal of Espartero, ending the biennium.
Liberal Union (1856-1868)
This period saw an alternation of moderate and Liberal Union governments, with O’Donnell leading a centrist coalition of moderate leftists and progressives. It was characterized by pragmatic liberalism.
1. Economy: Governments focused on economic progress and increased public investment, completing railway lines and the Canal de Isabel II.
2. Foreign Policy: Efforts were made to restore Spain’s international prestige. The most significant military action was the Hispano-Moroccan War (1859-60), where General Prim gained prominence.
3. Domestic Policy: Attempts to achieve peaceful alternation in power failed. Governments were often formed based on the queen’s favor. Progressives and Democrats began to collaborate, culminating in the Pact of Ostend. After the deaths of Narváez (1868) and O’Donnell, the Unionists joined this alliance.
Causes of the 1868 Revolution:
- Economic Crisis: An industrial crisis evolved into a global financial crisis from 1866.
- Social Crisis: Lockouts, unemployment, and widespread discontent.
- Political Crisis: The growing urban middle class was excluded from political life.
- Immediate Political Crisis: The deaths of Narváez and O’Donnell, student activism, and the alliance of progressives and democrats made the political situation untenable.
- Discredit of the Monarchy: The political crisis was directed against Queen Isabella II and the Bourbon dynasty.