Reign of Isabella II: Rise of the Liberal State in Spain
Reign of Isabella II: Creation of the Liberal State
Introduction
The reign of Isabella II (1833-1868) witnessed the creation and consolidation of the liberal state in Spain, transforming the absolute monarchy into a parliamentary system. This transition, part of a broader process of change, accelerated during Isabella’s rule. The backdrop includes the introduction of the New Regime during the War of Independence, its fluctuations under Ferdinand VII, and the ensuing Carlist Wars. The regent María Cristina and the Liberals, finding common cause, ultimately triumphed with Isabella II, securing the new regime.
Development: The Bourgeois State
While all liberals favored a constitutional monarchy, two main factions emerged: the Moderates and the Progressives.
Moderates
The Moderates, supporting shared sovereignty with significant powers for the Crown (veto, ministerial appointments, dissolving Cortes), championed order and property. They advocated for census-based suffrage, limiting individual rights, and defended the Catholic Church and a centralized state. Their ranks included landowners, gentry, old nobility, high clergy, and senior military officers.
Progressives
The Progressives advocated for national sovereignty, limited Crown powers, broader suffrage, and greater individual and collective freedoms. They favored government decentralization and the National Militia. Their base comprised the small and middle bourgeoisie, middle classes, professionals, artisans, urban workers, and lower-ranking soldiers.
Both parties, led by military figures who gained prominence during the Carlist Wars, alternated in power through pronouncements. General Espartero was a key Progressive figure. Following a brief Narváez government (1856-1858), Isabella II entrusted power to the Liberal Union, a conservative government supported by the bourgeoisie, led by O’Donnell. This period saw stability, economic prosperity, railway construction, and banking investments.
This prosperity extended to the masses. Liberals remained in opposition, while Democrats and Republicans gained strength among the populace. Foreign policy, previously neglected due to internal weakness, became a focus. The Liberal Union government (1858-1866) pursued an aggressive foreign policy, including interventions in Indochina, Morocco, Mexico, and a war against Peru and Chile, with limited success.
By 1863, government erosion and divisions within the Liberal Union led to O’Donnell’s resignation, followed by unstable and authoritarian governments. Liberals withdrew from parliament, while Democrats and Republicans denounced the constitutional system and Isabella II. Public discontent grew, fueled by an economic crisis starting in 1864, with railway collapses, textile factory closures, and a European market crash in 1866, leading to rising prices and unemployment.
Key political events included the Night of St. Daniel (1865) and the San Gil barracks revolt (1866). The government responded with repression, arresting opponents, closing newspapers, and suspending the Cortes. In 1866, Progressives, Democrats, and Republicans formed the Pact of Ostend, aiming to dethrone Isabella II and convene a Constituent Assembly based on universal suffrage. Prim emerged as a leader. The deaths of O’Donnell and Narváez left Isabella II isolated, culminating in the 1868 coup.
Conclusion
Isabella II’s reign stabilized the liberal regime and established the liberal state. Dominated by census-based, doctrinaire liberalism, with the Moderate party representing the oligarchy, it imposed its political concepts (shared sovereignty, strong Crown, census suffrage). Democratic weakness, evident in minor military uprisings, highlighted the gap between official Spain and the reality of growing despotism, which would solidify during the Restoration.