Renaissance: A Chronological Journey from Middle Ages to Modernity
Chronology of the Renaissance
The Revival in Italy
The Renaissance arose in Italian cities during the 14th century. These Italian states became centers of art and intellect, attracting educated individuals from across Europe. They served as hubs for the dissemination of new, pro-Western ideas.
The “big three” authors of the Italian Renaissance are Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio.
The Spanish Renaissance
The Spanish Renaissance unfolded in two stages:
- The Pre-Renaissance (15th Century): This transitional period was marked by political, social, and moral crises. Traditional medieval ideas coexisted with a new perspective on life, influenced by various factors that gradually introduced changes. Traditional folk poetry, with its roots in medieval traditions, flourished during this century. This included the traditional lyric and the romancero. Courtly literature, characterized by its refined and gallant style, emerged and thrived within the exclusive circles of royal courts. Courtly verse encompassed poetry, prose romances, and books of chivalry.
- The Full Renaissance (16th Century): This period can be further divided into two halves:
- First Half (Reign of Charles V): This era witnessed societal splendor and vitality. European literary and artistic currents were introduced, partly due to Spanish humanists and artists traveling to Italy and European intellectuals settling in Spain. Renaissance lyric poetry, exemplified by Garcilaso de la Vega, flourished. Didactic and critical literature also emerged, with notable figures like the Valdés brothers (Juan and Alfonso).
- Second Half (Reign of Philip II): This period saw a resurgence of traditional religiosity, influenced by the Council of Trent. The Inquisition was revived to combat deviations from orthodox beliefs. Ascetic and mystical literature gained prominence, with prominent figures like Fray Luis de León and San Juan de la Cruz.
From the Middle Ages to the Renaissance
The 15th century marked the culmination of a long process that transitioned Europe from the Middle Ages to the Renaissance. During this pre-Renaissance period, the monolithic medieval worldview began to crumble, giving rise to humanism—a new perspective on life. This shift challenged the exclusive authority of faith and belief, fostering a curious and critical attitude. It led to a renewed interest in classical languages and texts and a movement towards intellectual freedom.
The invention of printing in the mid-15th century revolutionized the dissemination of written culture. In contrast to the oral tradition of medieval poetry, written works began to be valued and collected in songbooks and romanceros.
The Political and Social Crisis of the 15th Century
The first two-thirds of the 15th century, under the reigns of Enrique III and Enrique IV, saw a weakening of the monarchy. Royal authority declined, and the government fell into the hands of private individuals or favorites. The nobility, enriched by the kings themselves, gained power and formed factions. This state of anarchy led to the abandonment of the Reconquista, which had been a central focus of the Castilian crown during the Middle Ages. The general population faced impoverishment.
The reign of the Catholic Monarchs in the last third of the century marked a strengthening of royal authority.
The Moral Crisis
During this period of crisis, medieval ideas that maintained a rigid social order and viewed earthly life as a mere transition to the afterlife were challenged. The anthropocentric view of the medieval world was questioned, and a spirit of rebellion against social hierarchy emerged. The boundaries between the divine and the human became less defined, while fortune and death were increasingly perceived as formidable adversaries.
Courtly Literature
In the late Middle Ages, the nobility, initially isolated and focused on warfare, began to embrace culture and literature. Kings and lords established literary courts, fostering the development of courtly literature. This literature reflected the refined and gallant atmosphere of the court.
Court Poetry
Court poetry, intended for a select audience, was often collected in songbooks. It drew inspiration from various cultural and literary influences. In contrast to the predominantly epic or religious themes of medieval literature, courtly poetry often explored themes of love, influenced by the Provençal troubadours of southeastern France. Love was depicted as a source of grace and ennoblement, expressed through conventional and rhetorical language. Didactic poetry, addressing moral issues in a solemn and judgmental tone, also flourished. The influence of the Italian Renaissance, particularly the works of Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio, was evident. Interest in classical Greco-Roman culture and humanism also grew.
Great Poets of the 15th Century
- Marqués de Santillana: A powerful nobleman with a broad humanistic education, he assembled a vast library and showed a keen interest in Italian authors and Provençal culture.
- Juan de Mena: Latin secretary to King Juan II, he was a humanist with a deep love for classical culture and a dedicated literary figure.
- Íñigo López de Mendoza, Marqués de Santillana: A prominent nobleman and poet, he embraced both traditional Spanish verse forms and Italian influences.
- Jorge Manrique: Involved in politics and tragically killed in battle at a young age, he is known for his deeply moving Coplas a la muerte de su padre (Verses on the Death of His Father), which explore themes of mortality and the fleeting nature of life.
Traditional Folk Poetry
Traditional folk poetry encompassed two main forms: the traditional lyric and the romancero. Both enjoyed widespread popularity.
Traditional Lyric
Popular lyric poetry consisted of anonymous works originating from the common people. It reflected the joys and sorrows of everyday life, employing universal themes. These poems were often performed by minstrels and transmitted orally. Written records of this tradition are scarce, as it was often disregarded by learned poets. However, some lyrical texts were included in royal anthologies and historical documents.
Songs of Love
This category includes a diverse group of songs that share the theme of love. They are typically short and include:
- Spring Songs: Associated with ancient pagan festivals celebrating the arrival of spring, these songs celebrate the rebirth of life and the blossoming of young love.
- Love Songs, Albas, and Auroras: These are love poems that express the joys and sorrows of romantic relationships.
- Pilgrimage Songs: These songs are often associated with journeys undertaken by lovers.
The Changing Mentality
During the late Middle Ages and the Renaissance, a significant shift in mentality occurred. The medieval worldview, centered on religious devotion and fear of God, gradually gave way to an anthropocentric perspective, where man was considered the measure of all things. Faith in dogma was increasingly replaced by reason, curiosity, and a critical spirit, laying the foundation for modern science and geographical discoveries. The anonymity and collectivism of the Middle Ages were supplanted by individualism, which celebrated human achievements and valued fame and success in social and political life. Intellectual and artistic endeavors were encouraged. The emphasis on devotion and mortification shifted towards vitality and the secularization of life. The world was no longer seen as a mere passage to the afterlife but as something to be enjoyed. Pilgrimages, festivals, and celebrations gained popularity. A separation between religion and everyday life emerged, accompanied by an exaltation of human love and admiration for pagan art.
Thematic and Formal Revolution in 16th-Century Renaissance Poetry
Renaissance poetry was not merely a continuation of 15th-century trends but a significant departure, largely influenced by Juan Boscán and Garcilaso de la Vega. Platonic love, nature, and classical mythology became central themes.
New Themes
Neoplatonic philosophy, particularly the ideas of Francesco Petrarch, shaped the new concept of love. Love was viewed as a spiritual source of life and a path to perfection. It ennobled and beautified the lover, who contemplated the physical and moral perfection of the beloved. This spiritual love became the foundation of much Renaissance poetry, as seen in Petrarch’s Canzoniere, which expresses his passionate love for Laura, and in the sonnets and eclogues of Garcilaso de la Vega.
Through the Italian Renaissance, classical literature gained renewed appreciation. Nature was viewed with a fresh perspective, leading to detailed descriptions of landscapes. The classical myth of the Golden Age, a time of harmony and justice before the need for laws, was revived. Nature was idealized as peaceful and harmonious, reflecting the classical locus amoenus motif. The revival of classical themes also manifested in numerous allusions and recreations of characters and themes from Greco-Roman mythology.
New Rhythmic and Metric Structures
Formal renewal was as important as thematic innovation. New rhythmic and metric structures, adopted from Italian poetry, replaced the traditional Spanish octosyllabic verse. Juan Boscán and Garcilaso de la Vega introduced the Italian hendecasyllable, used alone or in combination with heptasyllabic lines, creating new strophic forms.
Panorama of 16th-Century Castilian Lyric
The first half of the 16th century was dominated by Juan Boscán, Garcilaso de la Vega, and other poets of the Italianate school, who introduced new forms and themes from Italy, challenging the traditional Castilian style. Cristóbal de Castillejo was a notable opponent of this trend.
In the second half of the century, new themes and forms emerged, which can be broadly categorized into two trends:
- Profane Poetry: This trend focused on Platonic love, nature, and classical mythology.
- Ascetic and Mystical Poetry: In this trend, Platonic love and nature were transformed into symbolic elements, as exemplified by the poetry of Fray Luis de León, a representative of the Salamanca school.
Profane Renaissance Poetry
Garcilaso de la Vega
Garcilaso de la Vega, a nobleman from Toledo, embodied the ideal of the Renaissance gentleman, combining military prowess with literary talent. His poetry, however, focuses primarily on love, expressing the pain of an impossible or unattainable love. He wrote three eclogues, five songs, some forty sonnets, and a few other poems. He is considered a master of the Castilian language.
Mystical Poetry
Ascetic and mystical literature combined medieval religious traditions with the new spirituality of the Renaissance. This literature described the path to spiritual perfection, the ascent of the soul towards communion with God.
This path involved three stages:
- The Way of Purification: The soul is cleansed of sin through penance and freed from passions through prayer.
- The Way of Illumination: The soul is guided by examples of saints and focuses on the Passion and Redemption of Christ.
- The Way of Union: Through special grace, the soul transcends the world and achieves spiritual union with God. This stage is a privilege reserved for mystics.
Fray Luis de León
Born in Belmonte in 1527, Fray Luis de León’s life was closely linked to Salamanca, where he studied theology. In 1572, he was denounced to the Inquisition for preferring the Hebrew text of the Bible and for translating biblical texts into vernacular languages, which was prohibited by the Council of Trent. He was imprisoned for almost five years, enduring harsh conditions. In 1576, he triumphantly returned to the university. Fray Luis was a man of vast culture, enjoying great fame among his contemporaries and the admiration of his students. He had a controversial and passionate temperament, engaging in numerous disputes and confrontations.
His prose works often blend biblical commentary with personal experiences and observations. Notable examples include De los nombres de Cristo (On the Names of Christ), a dialogue between three Augustinian friars; La perfecta casada (The Perfect Wife), a treatise on the virtues of Christian marriage; and translations and commentaries on the Song of Songs and the Book of Job. His poetry is relatively limited in quantity but profound in its exploration of religious and philosophical themes.
San Juan de la Cruz
Born in Fontiveros in 1542, San Juan de la Cruz dedicated his life to the Carmelite order. He studied in Salamanca and, in collaboration with Saint Teresa of Avila, undertook the reform of the Carmelite order for men, restoring and founding monasteries. In 1577, internal conflicts within the order led to his imprisonment for eight months, where he suffered humiliation and hardship.
San Juan de la Cruz is considered one of the greatest poets of the Spanish language. His poems, though few in number, are renowned for their profound expression of spiritual experience, particularly the experience of mystical love. His major works include Noche oscura del alma (Dark Night of the Soul), Cántico espiritual (Spiritual Canticle), and Llama de amor viva (Living Flame of Love), which express his sublime mystical experiences. His minor poems, numbering thirty-one, also offer a unique and powerful expression of his spiritual journey.