Renaissance and Reformation: A New Era in Europe
Humanism (15th-16th Centuries)
A New Way of Thinking
Humanism, a new mentality, placed man at the center of the world, focusing on human life. This Renaissance (16th century) movement rejected the medieval mindset and exalted man as a unique being possessing reason and free will. It drew inspiration from Greco-Roman culture through translations and fostered interest in science and technical progress. This led to a new scientific spirit based on observation and experimentation. Vernacular languages were used for cultural transmission, such as Bible translations.
Expansion of Humanism
The printing press (mid-15th century) facilitated the expansion of humanism, though its high cost limited printing to major cities. The first book in Catalan, Lahora de la Verge Maria, was printed in 1474. By the 16th century, 200,000 titles existed. Academies, centered on language, literature, and philosophy, and supported by patrons, played a crucial role. Scholars translated manuscripts and exchanged ideas. Universities like Bologna, Padua, and Florence were also important. Johannes Gutenberg’s invention of movable type printing led to the Gutenberg Bible in Mainz in 1455.
Religious Reformation
Causes
The late Middle Ages saw upheaval due to the Church’s exaggerated hierarchy, luxury, relaxed customs, and low culture among the clergy. The buying and selling of Church positions, indulgences, and papal bulls were widespread. Desiderius Erasmus advocated Bible reading for a more personal religious experience. In 1515, Pope Leo X issued new indulgences to fund the construction of St. Peter’s Basilica.
Martin Luther and the Protestant Reformation
In 1517, Martin Luther, a German friar, challenged the Church by publishing his Ninety-Five Theses, criticizing indulgences and the Church’s authority to grant them. He gained support from German princes who sought to control Church territories. Lutheranism emphasized salvation by faith, not good works; universal priesthood (anyone can interpret scripture); and the authority of the Bible. It spread to Germany, Sweden, Denmark, the Netherlands, England, Switzerland, and Norway.
Protestantism in Europe: Calvinism and Anglicanism
John Calvin’s doctrine of predestination (salvation is predetermined by God) spread throughout Europe, particularly in France (Huguenots), England (Puritans), and Scotland (Presbyterian Church under John Knox). In England, King Henry VIII established Anglicanism in 1534 after Pope Clement VII refused to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon. Henry declared himself the Supreme Head of the Church of England.
The Catholic Counter-Reformation
Fight Against Protestants
The Catholic Church fought back against Protestantism through the Inquisition (1542), a court to prosecute heretics, and the Congregation of the Index, which published lists of forbidden books. Heretics faced trials where they had to recant their beliefs or face punishment, including death.
The Council of Trent (1545-1563)
The Council of Trent, attended by high-ranking clergy and monarchs like Charles V, aimed to reaffirm Catholic doctrines and address the issues raised by the Reformation. It confirmed core doctrines, emphasizing both faith and good works for salvation, the seven sacraments (Baptism, Communion, Confession, Confirmation, Marriage, Holy Orders, and Anointing of the Sick), the sanctity of the Mass, and devotion to the Virgin Mary and saints. The Vulgate was declared the only valid Bible interpretation.
Reforms
- Banned the sale of indulgences
- Established seminaries for clergy training
- Required bishops to reside in their dioceses and priests in their parishes
- Urged exemplary lives and celibacy for clergy
- Published the Catechism for teaching children
Diffusion of the Counter-Reformation
Religious orders like the Society of Jesus (founded by Ignatius of Loyola in 1537), with its strict discipline and direct papal authority, played a key role in spreading the Counter-Reformation through education and missions.
The New Spirit of the Renaissance
The humanistic spirit spread through cities, empowering the wealthy bourgeoisie and fostering a more open mentality. Individualism and personal achievement were valued. Secularization grew, and religion’s central role in cultural life diminished. The ideal shifted from the medieval knight to the refined courtier, a patron of artists and thinkers interested in music and literature. Feudal customs declined. Princes and noblemen in Italian cities like Florence and Venice drove the artistic renewal of the Renaissance, becoming patrons of the arts.
A New Conception of Art
Art moved beyond religious themes, drawing inspiration from Greco-Roman mythology and classical antiquity. Artists pursued perfect beauty, viewing humans as perfect creations. They studied human anatomy and nature. Portraits became popular, often with landscape backgrounds. Architects emphasized beauty, simplicity, and harmonious proportions inspired by classical models. Painters used mathematical perspective, and sculptors revived classical proportions. Artists began signing their works.
The Quattrocento (15th Century)
Florence, under the Medici family, led the first stage of the Renaissance.
Architecture
Architects like Leon Battista Alberti and Filippo Brunelleschi introduced innovations based on geometry, using classical elements like domes, arches, columns, and cornices.
Sculpture
Donatello’s elegant works imbued figures with vitality. Lorenzo Ghiberti is known for his bronze doors on the Florence Baptistery.
Painting
Innovations included perspective, realistic nature representation, and psychological depth in characters. Masaccio, Piero della Francesca, and Sandro Botticelli were key figures. Botticelli’s mythological works became symbols for humanists.
The Cinquecento (16th Century)
Rome became the artistic center. The Renaissance matured.
Architecture
Popes became major art patrons. Pope Julius II commissioned Bramante and later Michelangelo for St. Peter’s Basilica. Andrea Palladio, known for the Villa Capra, adapted classical elements for bourgeois patrons in northern Italy.
Sculpture
Michelangelo, also an architect and painter, is considered one of the greatest sculptors. His work emphasized expressing emotions. Benvenuto Cellini created works like Perseus with mythological themes.
Painting
Leonardo da Vinci, a quintessential Renaissance artist, excelled in both art and science. His masterpieces include the Mona Lisa and The Last Supper. Raphael is known for his technical mastery, elegant portraits, and harmonious compositions, including The School of Athens (1511) and Madonnas. Michelangelo’s Sistine Chapel frescoes depict the creation and the Last Judgment, showcasing his sculptural approach to painting. Titian and Tintoretto were prominent Venetian painters of the 16th century. Titian blended Venetian colorism with sensuality.
The Diffusion of the Renaissance
The Renaissance reached its full European expansion in the 16th century.
Flanders
Renaissance influence was less pronounced in Flanders. Flemish painters focused on detail, realism, and portraits, lacking classical allusions. Early painters like Rogier van der Weyden and Jan van Eyck (founder of Flemish Renaissance painting) showed Gothic influences. Later, Hans Memling and Hieronymus Bosch (known for his fantastical and moralistic imagery) gained prominence. Pieter Bruegel the Elder depicted everyday life with grotesque satire in the mid-16th century.