Renaissance Gymnastics and Physical Education Evolution
What is Meant by the “Art of Gymnastics” in the Renaissance?
With the advent of the Renaissance, the importance of natural science and the scientific method grew. This era saw the first treaties on education and gymnastics.
The new philosophy of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, driven by changing living conditions, fostered a renewed interest in human activities. This led to a reunion with classical antiquity and its values. Humanists used the term “gymnastics” as the Greeks did, referring to physical exercises aimed at health, strength, and citizens’ physical robustness. They sought comprehensive training, cultivating both physical and intellectual aspects.
Key Figures in Renaissance Gymnastics
Vittorino da Feltre (1378-1446) established a school that prioritized physical activity and play. Among the writings of the period, The Book of Bodily Exercise (1553) by Spanish doctor Cristóbal Méndez was the first printed book entirely devoted to the benefits of exercise for health. De Arte Gymnastica (1569) by Jerónimo Mercuriale, published seventeen years later, was a more technical work based on Galen’s medical and hygienic approaches.
Events Promoting Physical Exercise
- Work specialization and professions requiring specific physical conditions.
- Increased working hours leading to postural defects and the need for compensatory exercise.
- Broader school programs with more time for games and sports.
- Urban growth reducing open spaces, prompting people to seek outdoor activities.
Philanthropists’ Ideas on Education and Gymnastics
The “philanthropists” advocated for education and gymnastics to be accessible to all, not just the privileged. Johann Bernhard Basedow (1723-1790) led this movement, creating the “Philanthropinum” in Dessau, emphasizing physical exercise and hygiene in education.
Thinkers like Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) with Emile, or On Education, and educators like Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746-1827) and Johann Friedrich Herbart, influenced educational reform, viewing gymnastics as fundamental to child development. In Spain, Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos (1744-1811) and Francisco Amorós (1770-1848) promoted physical education, which was integrated into the educational system in 1847 and became a secondary school subject in 1873. Other European countries made gymnastics compulsory in the early nineteenth century, though some, like Spain, excluded women. These ideas spurred gymnastic movements across Europe, marking the true beginning of physical education.
Birth and Characteristics of Modern Gymnastics
Some authors argue that Physical Education began in 1800 with Modern Gymnastics, driven by social changes and scientific advancements. Scientific studies of anatomy and physiology provided a basis for exercise, leading to systematized exercises in curricula. Social changes necessitated physical exercise for external purposes.
These changes include:
- Work specialization and professions requiring specific physical conditions.
- Increased working hours leading to postural defects and the need for compensatory exercise.
- Broader school programs with more time for games and sports.
- Urban growth reducing open spaces, prompting people to seek outdoor activities.
The Ring and Spear and Hunting Seals
This game, popular among Indian tribes, tested speed, eyesight, and spear-throwing ability.
Indian rings varied in size and material, from small stone rings to larger ones with woven leather. Spears ranged from darts to four-foot spears. The game was played outdoors on a level track.
Two players or teams competed. One player rolled the ring and both threw their spears, aiming to stop the ring. Points were awarded based on the ring’s color: red (ten points), yellow (five), blue (three), and green (one). The highest scorer rolled the ring in the next game.
Seal Hunt
A 60 cm2 cloth represented ice, with holes for seals to surface. A 7.5 cm leather or wood seal had holes representing vital points. A string was attached to the seal’s head. A 15 cm harpoon was used.
One player manipulated the seal under the “ice,” occasionally revealing it through the holes. The other player aimed to spear the seal’s vital points in a set number of attempts.
Physical Activity and the Body in the Middle Ages
Christianity’s influence led to a rejection of the material world, including the physical body. Austerity, sacrifice, and faith were emphasized, creating a separation between body and spirit.
The Middle Ages were characterized by introspection and asceticism. Physical training was limited to knights, tournaments, and military training for wars, such as the Crusades.
La Palma and Soule
La Palma: Played in various ways depending on the field layout. The field was divided into unequal camps. Teams switched sides after scoring or when opponents failed to receive the ball. The goal was to gain and keep the better field.
The Soule: Played with varied rules, field sizes, and player numbers. Teams often comprised married versus unmarried individuals. The objective was to move the ball between two posts or through a hoop. The game’s violence led to church bans, but nobles and kings still played during festivals. Some versions resembled modern hockey, using sticks to hit the ball.
Chivalry and Tournaments
These activities were reserved for the nobility.
Chivalry: Knights received education in courtesy, horsemanship, and fencing from age 12. At 15, they swore to defend their country. Tournaments were games where knights faced each other without real risk.
Tournaments: Three types existed: “à outrance” (real weapons), “à plaisance” (blunted weapons), and an intermediate form. The tournament ritual included:
1. Challenge between opponents.
2. King’s announcement and invitation to nobles.
3. Parade of opponents and judges.
4. Helmet inspection to prevent cheating.
5. A “chevalier d’honneur” with a handkerchief signaled a pause in combat.
6. Post-tournament celebration and prize distribution.