Rene Descartes: Life, Philosophy, and the 17th Century
Historical Context
From Authoritarian to Absolute Monarchy
Rene Descartes was born in 1596 in Haye, France. He studied at the Jesuit-run College of La Flèche, known for its strict rules. Descartes traveled extensively, spending time in France (Paris), Germany, the Netherlands, Sweden, and Denmark. He resided in the Netherlands for 20 years before moving to Stockholm at the invitation of Queen Christina of Sweden, where he later died.
During this period, Europe transitioned from authoritarian monarchy to absolute monarchy, a shift initiated by Louis XIII. The absolutist kings enjoyed the support of the rising bourgeoisie, who were becoming the new power base, challenging the aristocracy. Following the assassination of Henry IV, Louis XIII ascended to the throne. Cardinal Richelieu, his chief minister, paved the way for absolute monarchy by centralizing the French state.
The early 17th century witnessed the Thirty Years’ War, culminating in the Peace of Westphalia. After the death of Louis XIII, Louis XIV began his reign with Cardinal Mazarin as his chief minister. Gallicanism, a movement advocating for a French national church independent of Rome, emerged, creating conflict with the Pope.
Sociocultural Shifts
The 17th century saw significant changes, largely driven by geographical discoveries. This era experienced a tremendous social, political, and economic crisis. Society was divided into three classes: the struggling farmers, the economically influential bourgeoisie, and the nobles, who maintained their status.
Religion was a highly contentious issue, leading to widespread persecution, except in Holstein, which enjoyed religious freedom. New religious movements emerged, including Lutheranism (Germany, Scandinavian countries), Calvinism (Switzerland, Holland, Scotland, parts of England), and Anglicanism.
In literature, prominent figures included Lope de Vega, Calderon de la Barca, and Francisco de Quevedo. Baroque art, influenced by the Counter-Reformation’s religious fervor, flourished with artists like Bernini, Pedro de Ribera, and José de Churriguera.
Philosophical Framework
The Scientific Revolution
The evolution of philosophy is intertwined with the scientific revolution, which began with Copernicus’s publication of De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium, introducing the heliocentric theory. Tycho Brahe’s research, including the discovery of the Nova, which challenged the Aristotelian model, was crucial for scientific advancement. Brahe’s findings were inherited by Johannes Kepler, who discovered that planetary orbits were elliptical, not circular.
In the same year, Galileo Galilei built his telescope, revealing the moon’s valleys and mountains. He also contributed to the scientific method and emphasized the importance of mathematics. The Church, through the Inquisition, suppressed the dissemination of these discoveries.
Descartes adopted atomism to explain the Copernican cosmos. Later, Isaac Newton developed a comprehensive cosmology, including the discovery of gravity. Torricelli invented the barometer, and William Harvey demonstrated the circulation of blood.
Philosophy’s Independence
Philosophy gradually separated from its religious ties and gained independent status alongside science. Descartes emphasized the importance of knowledge for controlling nature and creating a more favorable human civilization. He was also influenced by the Baroque libertines, who embraced skepticism.