René Descartes: Philosophy and Metaphysics
René Descartes: Historical and Philosophical Framework
The 17th century was an era of crisis in economic, religious, political, and social sectors. Religious unity had been destroyed by the Protestant Reformation. The Catholic Church reacted with the Counter-Reformation and the Inquisition. Conflicts and religious wars, such as the Thirty Years’ War, ensued. In 1648, the Peace of Westphalia was signed, establishing the principle of religious tolerance. The transition from feudalism to capitalism continued. Absolutism was established in monarchies as a political system. In the stratified society, the bourgeoisie was gaining strength due to its ability to generate more fiscal income. In the cultural field, there was a proliferation of printed books. The Baroque expressed contradictions, such as dynamism and restlessness.
Philosophical Framework
It was a time of instability and fundamental doubt. Concepts like geocentrism came into question. A new model of scientific explanation of natural phenomena was sought. The Church spoke out against the innovations of modern philosophy. These innovations rejected the argument of authority and religious grounding. Two major philosophical systems emerged: rationalism and empiricism. Descartes championed rationalism, which emphasized full confidence in human reason and total independence from faith, affirming that the principles of knowledge are innate. Empiricism denied the existence of innate ideas and considered experience to be the source and limit of human knowledge.
Theory of Knowledge
Descartes sought true and indubitable principles, particularly in mathematics. He proposed four rules:
- Evidence: Clarity and distinction; a clear idea is one that the mind perceives without obstruction.
- Analysis: Decompose complex knowledge until reaching simple elements.
- Synthesis: Start a process of deductions from simple ideas to reach the most complex reconstruction.
- Enumeration: Review and check the entire process of analysis and synthesis.
Cartesian doubt is universal and radical. It is methodical, provisional, and constructive. It is skeptical but not theoretical.
Morality
Methodical doubt creates uncertainty in the field of action. Descartes proposed a provisional morality consisting of four maxims:
- Obey the laws and customs, follow the traditional religion and the most accepted and moderate views.
- Once an opinion is accepted, be firm and resolute in following it.
- Practice self-control and acceptance of fate, inspired by Stoic morals.
- Choose the cultivation of reason, which is the most proper aspect of man.
The Cartesian universe is mechanistic. In a mechanistic nature, there is no freedom; everything happens by necessity. The consciousness of freedom is an innate idea, and man is free, which is why he can doubt. Freedom is choosing what reason suggests as good and true. It enables perfection and happiness. Error occurs when the will goes beyond the limits of understanding or is hampered by the influence of passions, which are involuntary, beyond the control of the soul, or in disagreement with reason, causing servitude of the soul. It is not about eliminating passions but ordering them, submitting them to reason. This ideal of self-control confirms the influence of Stoicism.
Metaphysics
The Thinking Substance
“I think, therefore I am.” However, everything that the mind thinks or perceives is still under doubt. Ideas are mental acts (subjective reality), but not all have an objective reality. There are three types of ideas: adventitious (from external experience), factitious (constructed from other ideas), and innate (clear and distinct ideas). Descartes’ anthropological concept posits that in humans, there are two separate substances: body and soul. The soul is indivisible, immortal, and can exist without the body. It possesses innate ideas perceived with absolute clarity and distinction. The faculties of the soul are memory, imagination, common sense, will, and understanding. The union of body and soul is accidental. The soul is consciousness. The two substances are heterogeneous, and Descartes justifies their communication using the pineal gland in the brain.
The Infinite Substance (God)
The idea of infinity has been placed in me by a being that possesses all the perfections I can think of (ontological argument). Existence forms part of the essence of God. Once God’s existence is demonstrated, it guarantees all evidence because God, in his infinite mercy, would not allow me to be mistaken when perceiving something very clearly and distinctly. God is the guarantee of all truth.
The Extended Substance (The World)
In the Cartesian universe, everything is matter and motion. God created matter and motion. God is immutable and cannot be subject to change. The laws of physics are inertia, the direction of motion, and the conservation of motion. Descartes applied mechanism to living bodies as well.