Research Methods: A Comprehensive Guide to Scientific Inquiry
Define Research
Research is the systematic investigation or exploration of an idea, subject, or topic. It has clearly stated aims that relate to existing knowledge and needs and is conducted within limitations (time, money, and opportunity).
Aims of Research
- Properties – Understand properties of emotion, physiology, cognition, and behavior.
- Relationships – Understand relationships between things in the environment, such as television and aggression.
- Produce Theories – Describe and explain phenomena, such as the bystander effect.
- Predict Outcomes – Predict outcomes based on factors such as motivational orientation and acculturation success.
- Confirm Studies by Others – Reconfirm or reject existing ideas or explanations, such as the link between immunizations and autism.
Methods of Scientific Research
Scientific research focuses on empiricism, which involves collecting data through observation and measurement.
- Observations – Record and analyze behaviors, forming the foundation of scientific research.
- Precision – Collect data in an exact and precise manner, avoiding vague terms like “many” or “most.”
- Measurement – Use tools (e.g., surveys, videos) to measure phenomena, allowing for analysis, testing, and theorizing.
- Use of Instruments – Rely on scientific tools to provide accurate data and insights.
- Controlling for Variables – Eliminate certain possible causes to isolate the key factor responsible for observed events.
Types of Social Research
- Exploratory – Investigate a new topic to develop a general understanding and refine ideas for future research.
- Descriptive – Present a quantitative or qualitative picture of an event, activity, or group.
- Explanatory – Test theories or develop new accounts of why activities, events, or relations occur as they do.
- Evaluation – Assess the effectiveness of programs, products, or policies.
Philosophical Orientations
Positivism
An approach that seeks to apply the natural science model of research, assuming that social science is identical in logic to natural science and that discovery and explanation depend on rigorous empirical scrutiny.
Post-Positivism
An umbrella term for orientations that reject some of the basic premises of positivism, emphasizing that social reality is subjective, socially constructed, and interpreted by people.
Methodology
Qualitative vs. Quantitative
Two main approaches to research with distinct characteristics:
| Qualitative | Quantitative |
|---|---|
| Thematic Analysis | Statistical Analysis |
| Loosely Structured Research Process | Highly Structured Research Process |
| Holistic Perspective | Particularistic/Specific |
| Intimacy with Data | Separation from Data |
| Generalization to Properties and Context | Generalization to Population |
Quantitative studies work in reverse with Qualitative studies.
- Quantitative – Theory -> Hypothesis -> Observation -> Conclusion
- Qualitative – Observation -> Patterns -> Hypothesis -> Theory
Qualitative History
Early qualitative research began with Herodotus, who emphasized systematic collection, testing, and arrangement in a well-constructed narrative. The Chicago School of Sociology in the early 1900s became the foundation for contemporary qualitative methods.
Field Research
- Ethnography – Immerse in a group of people for an extended period, observing, listening, and asking questions.
- Observation – Observe behaviors and interactions in natural settings.
- Interviews – Conduct in-depth conversations with individuals or groups to gather insights and perspectives.
Focus Groups
A form of qualitative research where a group of people discuss their perceptions, opinions, and attitudes towards a topic. Focus group dynamics involve people playing off each other, leading to rich data.
Ethics
A way of understanding and examining what is right and what is wrong. A moral guideline.
- Respect for Persons – Autonomy, informed consent
- Beneficence/Non-Maleficence – Protection of study participants
- Justice/Non-Exploitation – Fairness in the conduct of research
Lit Review
A process of studying what has already been written on a particular topic. It can suggest gaps in the literature, prior theories to be observed or changed in new contexts, contradictions to be further investigated, or themes and processes to keep an eye out for.
Interview Questions
- Open Ended Questions – Offer options, choice, and numerical data.
- Close Ended Questions – Offer forced choice, a set of answers, alternatives, and provide quantifiable responses.
Advantages of Open Ended Questions: Own terms, unanticipated, genuine.
Disadvantages of Open Ended Questions: Time-consuming, coding, long answers, inaccuracies.