Restoration, Absolutism, and Independence in 19th Century Europe
International Context of the Restoration
In 1814, following Napoleon’s defeat, several European states met at the Congress of Vienna to reorganize Europe. The main objectives were:
- Restore the kings and dynasties defeated by Napoleon.
- Reinstate absolutist regimes (prior to the Napoleonic Wars).
- Prevent revolutionary outbreaks.
Prussia, Russia, and Austria signed the Holy Alliance to maintain absolutism and intervene militarily if needed. This period is known as the Restoration.
The Sexenio of Absolutism
The Restoration of Absolutism
In 1814, Ferdinand VII returned to Madrid. Supporters of the old regime wanted him to reject the 1812 Constitution. The Manifesto of the Persians, a letter from absolutist deputies, requested a return to the old order.
The Repression of Liberals
Liberals could not prevent the fall of the liberal regime. Ferdinand harshly repressed those who supported the liberal Cortes of Cádiz. Secret societies went underground or into exile, often to England via Gibraltar.
Liberal Pronouncements
Liberals turned to military coups to force the king to restore the 1812 Constitution. However, these pronouncements failed.
The Liberal Triennium (1820-1823)
The Triumph of the Riego Uprising
In 1820, Colonel Riego led a successful military uprising in Cabezas de San Juan. Ferdinand was forced to swear to the 1812 Constitution, becoming a constitutional monarch.
The Construction of the Liberal Regime
This marked Spain’s second attempt at a bourgeois liberal revolution. New Cortes were elected, and legislation from the Cortes of Cádiz was reviewed with an anticlerical focus. The Church was forbidden from acquiring land, the Jesuits were expelled, and the disentailment of church lands began.
The Division of the Liberals
Liberals split into two factions:
- The moderate doceanistas, who sought to moderate positions and ally with the nobility.
- The exalted or veinteañistas, who sought support from the masses with more radical approaches.
The Opposition of the Absolutists
Absolutists, also known as realists, strongly opposed the liberal regime. The king used his veto power to obstruct the liberals. Opposition became violent in 1822:
- The Royal Guard in Madrid rose up in defense of absolutism, though unsuccessfully.
- Armed bands in the Pyrenees, supported by peasants and clergy, formed the Regency of Seo de Urgell, acting as the true government.
The Intervention of the Holy Alliance
The liberal regime ended due to foreign intervention. In 1822, the Holy Alliance decided to end the Spanish revolutionary experience. France intervened with an army known as the Hundred Thousand Children of St. Louis. The government and Cortes retreated to Cadiz, where they surrendered. Ferdinand VII restored absolutism.
The Ominous Decade (1823-1833)
1824 to 1826
Ferdinand annulled the work of the Liberal Triennium and unleashed a new repression of liberals. The Church supported the absolutist restoration, though the Inquisition was not restored due to French pressure.
1826 to 1833
Ferdinand implemented a more moderate policy with administrative reforms, reminiscent of enlightened despotism. This was due to:
- A severe economic crisis and deficit.
- Pressure from foreign powers, especially France.
This policy produced opposition from:
- Liberals, who continued their plots in secret societies.
- The apostolic or ultras, who opposed the reforms.
In 1827, the revolt of the agraviats or malcontents occurred in Catalonia.
The Succession Crisis
Ferdinand had no male heir. His brother Carlos was the heir, but in 1830, Queen Maria Cristina was pregnant. The Salic Law excluded women from the throne, so Ferdinand issued the Pragmatic Sanction, canceling the Salic Law. The queen gave birth to a girl, Isabel. The apostolic, known as Carlists, refused to recognize the princess.
The Emancipation of the American Colonies (1810-1824)
Causes of Independence
Social Causes: The Creoles
The Creoles, descendants of Spanish emigrants, formed the social and economic elite but lacked political power. They began to consider breaking with Spain. Indians, mestizos, and black slaves were more concerned with their exploitation by the Creoles.
Economic Causes: Colonial Exploitation
Bourbon colonial exploitation increased in the 18th century, causing disaffection due to fiscal pressure and commercial monopoly.
Ideological Causes: The Spread of Liberalism
Liberalism spread among the natives, influenced by the independence of the United States and the French Revolution.
Temporary Factors
Two factors aided emancipation:
- The loss of the fleet at Trafalgar made it difficult for Spain to control the colonies.
- The French invasion in 1808 created a power vacuum.
Steps to Independence
1810-1814
In 1808, juntas were formed in American cities, removing existing authorities. These juntas, controlled by Creoles, proclaimed loyalty to Ferdinand VII. In 1810, American juntas convened a Congress, proclaimed independence, and established a constitution. Indigenous people generally preferred to remain outside of Spanish rule. Only in Mexico, Father Hidalgo created an independence movement.
1814-1816
When Ferdinand VII returned, he sent an army to regain control of most colonies.
1816-1824
New insurrections began with support from the U.S. and England. Military campaigns by Simón Bolívar and José de San Martín were decisive. In 1824, the final defeat of Spanish troops occurred at the Battle of Ayacucho. General Iturbide strengthened Mexico’s independence. The United States forced the purchase of Florida, leaving Spain with only Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines.
Consequences of Independence
For Spain, the consequences were significant:
- The colonial empire was reduced to Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines.
- Spain’s international role was reduced.
- Economic effects were severe, with the loss of tax revenue and colonial markets.