Restoration Europe: Liberalism, Nationalism, and Marxism
Restoration Europe: Liberalism and Nationalism
Following Napoleon’s defeat, the victorious states (Russia, Britain, Prussia, and Austria) convened at the Congress of Vienna (1814-1815) to restore the old order throughout Europe and reimpose absolute monarchies, where the King held supreme power. The Holy Alliance (1815), a mutual assistance treaty between European monarchs, aimed to suppress any liberal revolutionary threats.
Despite the apparent return to absolutism, the ideals of the French Revolution had a lasting impact. After 1815, liberalism and nationalism emerged as the two primary forces opposing the Restoration.
Liberalism
Liberalism is a political system centered on the individual and society. It asserts that the State must safeguard individual rights and freedoms. The individual is a free citizen, and all citizens constitute the nation, which possesses sovereignty.
Key tenets of Liberalism:
- Parliamentary Governance: Policy decisions should originate from an elected Parliament that enacts laws.
- Constitutionalism: Advocates for a Constitution that ensures the separation of powers: legislative (law-making), executive (law-implementing), and judicial (law-interpreting).
- Private Property Rights: Upholds the right to private property.
Nationalism
Nationalism is a political ideology that champions the right of peoples to self-determination and defends their sovereignty. A nation is defined as a collective of individuals sharing a common religion, culture, traditions, and a desire to live together. Examples include German and Italian nationalism.
Marxism, Anarchism, and Internationalism
The new industrial society prompted thinkers to critique the inequalities created by capitalism and propose alternative societal models. These include:
Marxism
In the mid-nineteenth century, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels condemned the exploitation of the working class in factories. They advocated for a workers’ revolution to dismantle capitalism and private property. The abolition of private ownership would lead to the gradual disappearance of social classes and the state, ultimately achieving an ideal communist society: a classless society.
From the late nineteenth century, Marxists proposed the creation of socialist workers’ parties to pursue the proletarian revolution. They also advocated for participation in political life through elections and parliamentary involvement. Socialists aimed to support legislation favorable to workers, such as universal suffrage and an eight-hour workday.
Anarchism
Anarchism, represented by thinkers like Bakunin, shared three core principles:
- Exaltation of individual freedom and social solidarity.
- Critique of private property and advocacy for collective ownership.
- Rejection of authority, particularly that of the State.
Anarchists defended revolutionary action by workers and farmers to destroy the state and create a new collectivist and egalitarian society. They opposed participation in political life and the organization of workers into parties.
Internationalism
Marxists and anarchists advocated for the global unification of the working class to combat capitalism (proletarian internationalism). In 1864, Marx initiated the International Workers Association (First International), uniting Marxists, anarchists, and trade unionists. Ideological differences between Marxists and anarchists led to the International’s dissolution in 1876. In 1889, socialist leaders founded the Second International, which differed from the first by being purely socialist. It established symbols of the labor movement, such as the anthem “The Internationale” and May Day (Labor Day).