Restoration in Spain (1875-1931): Political Events and Crises
Item 7
Restoration of the 1898 Crisis
1. Political Events (1875-1898)
On December 29, 1874, General Martinez Campos led a revolt in Sagunto and proclaimed King Alfonso XII. General Serrano, the president of the government, was unauthorized and exiled. The following day, a provisional government headed by Canovas del Castillo was formed in Madrid. Alfonso XII, who had helped draft the Manifesto of Sandhurst outlining the principles of the restoration, supported him.
On January 9, 1875, the young king arrived in Spain, restoring the Bourbon dynasty. The initial phase of the restoration focused on ending the Carlist War, establishing a bipartisan system, alternating power, and foreign policy.
The End of the Carlist War
Alfonso XII’s first action was to move north to lead the war against the Carlists, ongoing for three years in Catalonia, the Basque Country, and Navarre. Despite some victories, Don Carlos failed to occupy major cities like Bilbao and Pamplona. Alfonso XII offered amnesty, which former Carlist leader General Cabrera accepted, urging troops to end the war. The conflict concluded in March 1876 when Charles VII fled to France. Carlism shifted from military to political participation, positioning itself on the far right.
In Catalonia, the war fostered an autonomous attitude. Cánovas repealed key aspects of the Navarrese charters, increasing state intervention and establishing compulsory military service and the State Concert.
Bipartisanship
Cánovas del Castillo implemented a two-party system modeled on the British to stabilize politics. The Conservative and Liberal parties, representing the right and left within liberal thought, dominated the political scene. The Conservative Party, led by Cánovas, included former Moderates, Liberal Unionists, and some Progressives, gaining support from the Church. The Liberal Party, led by Sagasta, comprised Democrats and radical sectors of moderate Republicanism, supported by professionals and merchants.
The Conservatives won the initial election and drafted the 1876 Constitution. After Alfonso XII’s death in 1885, the parties agreed to alternate power via the Pact of El Prado to ensure stability. Alfonso XIII was born in 1886.
The Regency of Maria Cristina
Maria Cristina, Alfonso XII’s widow, became regent. The Liberals, led by Sagasta, enacted the Jury Act and the Universal Suffrage Act (1890), extending voting rights to men over 25, though elections remained controlled.
Foreign Policy
Foreign recognition and Pope Pius IX’s support legitimized the new regime. The pacification of Cuba was achieved through the Peace of Zanjón (1878), granting Cubans the same rights as Spaniards.
The Political System: Theory and Practice
The restoration consolidated the Liberal Revolution, incorporating various sectors and excluding those opposing the monarchy. Cánovas prioritized practical success over ideological purity, focusing on core principles while allowing debate on other issues.
2. The 1876 Constitution
The constitution reflected compromises between Conservatives and Liberals. Key differences included sovereignty, suffrage (census-based vs. universal male), and the confessional state. Article 27, regarding elections, allowed flexibility. The state declared itself Catholic but allowed freedom of conscience.
Practice: Law and Chieftaincy
The restoration aimed to avoid confrontation and ensure stability. The 1876 Constitution allowed each government to legislate according to its ideology. The Electoral Act of 1878 (census-based) and laws on freedom of assembly and expression were passed. Elections were manipulated, ensuring the continuation of the two major parties.
Peripheral Nationalisms
Centralism was enshrined in the restoration system. Regionalism emerged in Catalonia, the Basque Country, and Galicia, advocating for autonomy and cultural identity.
3. Regionalism and Catalan Nationalism
The Renaixença cultural movement fostered regional aspirations. Valenti Almirall promoted Catalan federalism. The Liga de Catalunya presented regional programs while maintaining loyalty to the monarchy. The Bases de Manresa (1892) outlined a Catalan regional constitution.
The Beginnings of Basque Nationalism
Basque nationalism arose from the defense of the charters, led by Sabino Arana. The Basque Nationalist Party (PNV) was founded in 1895, advocating for independence. Internal tensions existed between independence advocates and those seeking autonomy.
Other Nationalist Expressions
In Galicia, nationalism emerged through literary revival with writers like Rosalía de Castro. In 1889, Brañas published Regionalism. The Galician League was formed in 1890. Similar movements appeared in Andalusia and Valencia.
Item 9
Restoration: Political and Social Crisis (1898-1931)
1. The Disaster of 1898 and the Crisis of the Restoration
The restoration failed to solve Spain’s problems due to resistance to reforms. The political failure can be divided into four stages: 1902-1907 (civil power crisis), 1907-1912 (Pact of El Pardo crisis), 1912-1918 (Great Depression of 1917), and 1918-1923 (breakdown and Primo de Rivera’s coup).
Spain’s Problems
Spain faced cultural and economic backwardness, unequal wealth distribution, a corrupt political regime, a weakened army, and the threat of peripheral nationalism.
The Impact of the Disaster
The loss of colonies in 1898 was perceived as a national catastrophe. The monarchy and dynastic parties continued, but political instability increased, with 32 government changes between 1901 and 1923. Opposition from the labor movement and middle classes grew, fueled by intellectuals of the Generation of ’98. Regeneracionismo, led by Joaquín Costa, offered ambiguous solutions.