Restoration, Liberalism, and Nationalism in 19th Century Europe

Posted on Jan 4, 2025 in History

Restoration, Liberalism, and Nationalism

1. Political Developments 1815-1870

In Europe and America, a number of decisive events took place between 1815 and 1870. After the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, both the Ancien Régime and absolute monarchy were restored in Europe. Some people opposed this political reaction and demanded the rights and freedoms that they had gained during the French Revolution. As a result, the 19th century was characterised by regular revolts and revolutions that eventually led to political and social changes. In America, the North and the South developed in very different ways. While the United States expanded its frontiers to include new territories in the West, the Spanish colonies in Central and South America won their independence and became sovereign states. Cultural developments in art and architecture reflected these political changes. A new style called Romanticism developed, which emphasised emotion, creativity, individual freedom and national pride.

2. The Restoration in Europe 1815-1820

The Restoration was a return to the political system of the Ancien Régime after Napoleon’s defeat in 1815.

2.1. The Congress of Vienna

The leaders of various European states met at the Congress of Vienna (1814-1815), where they agreed the following measures:

  • The restoration of absolute monarchy: the European monarchs who had been deposed by Napoleon returned to power. However, some of these monarchs had to accept constitutional limits to their power.
  • Changes to Europe’s borders: Napoleon’s conquest had transformed the map of Europe. After his defeat, another series of changes were made.
  • Two alliances were formed to enforce the agreements of the Congress of Vienna, and also to support Europe’s restored monarchs in the event of a revolution:
    • The Holy Alliance (Russia, Austria and Prussia).
    • The Quadruple Alliance: the three members of the Holy Alliance, plus Great Britain (UK).

2.2. The Reign of Fernando VII

After the Spanish victory over Napoleon in the War of Independence, Joseph I (Napoleon’s brother) left Spain, and Fernando VII returned to the Spanish throne. His reign can be divided into three periods, each marked by decisive events:

  • The restoration of absolutism: When he returned to Spain, Fernando VII had the support of the Spanish people, who received him as their legitimate king. He was also supported by absolutists, who demanded a return to the political system of the Ancien Régime. After becoming king, Fernando VII abolished the Constitution of 1812, and ruled as an absolute monarch.
  • The liberal period: Some members of the Spanish military rebelled against this return to absolutism, and in 1820, there was a successful revolt led by two army officers, Riego and Quiroga. As a result, the king restored the liberal Constitution of 1812, and with it the rights and freedoms that had been suppressed.
  • The victory of absolutism (1823-1833): In 1823, Fernando VII asked the Holy Alliance to assist him in re-establishing absolutism. This decision led to more revolts, but this time they were not successful. At the end of his reign, Fernando VII proclaimed his pragmatic sanction. This allowed Isabel, his oldest daughter, to become queen after his death. The pragmatic sanction replaced Salic Law, which had excluded females from the line of succession. Under Salic law, Fernando’s heir would have been his brother Carlos. However, the pragmatic sanction prevented Carlos from becoming king, and became a source of conflict during the Carlist Wars (1833-1840; 1846-1849 and 1872-1876).
FERNANDO VII:

King Fernando VII was a contradictory figure in Spanish politics. When he first returned to Spain, he was welcomed and given the nickname El Deseado (The Desired). Later on, some people called him El Tigrekan because they thought his absolutist policies were similar to those of cruel Asian despots. Fernando VII was married four times, but had no male children. It was only when his last wife Maria Cristina gave birth to a daughter, Isabel, in 1803, that he had a successor to the throne.

3. Liberalism, Nationalism and Democracy

The revolutions of the 19th century were reactions to the restoration of the Ancien Régime and the return to absolutism. These revolutions were inspired by two political ideologies—liberalism and nationalism—as well as by the idea of democracy.

  • Liberalism: Political liberalism had its origins in the Enlightenment ideas that had influenced the American War of Independence and the French Revolution. Liberalism emphasised individual freedoms, and generally represented the interests of the bourgeoisie.
    • Key Principles:
      • National sovereignty.
      • Constitutional monarchy as the form of government.
      • The separation of powers (executive, legislative and judicial branches).
      • Limited suffrage, restricted to male property owners.
      • Freedom of association, expression and religion, as well as freedom of the press.
  • Nationalism: Nationalism advocated the right of people who defined themselves as nations to establish their own independent states. Many nationalist movements originated in the struggle of certain countries and regions to free themselves from domination by Napoleon and his empire.
    • Key Principles:
      • National sovereignty, but with the form of government that each nation prefers.
      • Independent nation-states with clearly defined borders.
      • Nation-states should have a population made up of people who have a common history, language and culture.
      • This common history, language and culture will create a well-integrated society.
  • Democracy: In the 19th century, democratic movements defended ordinary people’s right to participate in politics. Democratic movements expressed the demands of the middle and working classes, as well as opposition to the inequalities produced by industrial capitalism.
    • Key Principles:
      • National sovereignty, with the republic as the preferred form of government.
      • Opposition to monarchy, considered incompatible with democracy.
      • Universal manhood suffrage.
      • Political parties should defend the rights of the middle and working classes against upper-class dominance.

3.1. The Age of Revolution

The political revolutions that took place during the first half of the 19th century brought the final end to absolute monarchy in Europe. Most of these revolutionary movements were based on liberal and nationalist ideologies. However, the revolutions of 1848 aimed to establish democracy as well. In the 1820s, the following revolutions took place:

  • In Portugal and Spain, there were liberal revolutions that aimed to establish constitutional monarchies.
  • Greece won its independence from the Ottoman Empire through a liberal and nationalist revolution.

In 1830, new revolutions broke out:

  • In France, a liberal revolution established a constitutional monarchy.
  • In Belgium, a nationalist revolution gained independence from the Netherlands, to which Belgium had been united by the Congress of Vienna.

In 1848, revolutions broke out in France, the Austrian Empire, the German Confederation and Italy. These were more radical than the revolutions of the 1820s and 1830s—the middle classes and proletariat were now demanding democratic reforms which would give them access to political power. All the revolutions of 1848 failed, except in France. In the French case, 1848 brought about the proclamation of the Second Republic and the introduction of universal manhood suffrage.