Restoration of the Political System in Spain (1876-1931)
The Political System Restoration
Constitution of 1876
The return of General Martínez Campos to power in December 1874 marked the restoration of the Bourbon monarchy under Alfonso XII. This new political system, shaped by Cánovas del Castillo, aimed to establish a British-style two-party system (Conservative and Liberal), promoting civilian governments and limiting military intervention in politics. The goal was a moderate constitution grounded in traditional values yet compatible with democracy.
The Constitution of 1876, a synthesis of moderate and democratic principles, became the most enduring constitution in Spanish history (1876-1931). Its key features included:
- Shared sovereignty between the King and the Cortes.
- Executive power vested in the King, including veto power, appointment of ministers, and shared legislative power with the Cortes.
- A bicameral Cortes comprising the Congress (elected by a restricted electorate) and the Senate (composed of life senators appointed by the King).
- An independent judiciary.
- A statement of rights and freedoms, subject to ordinary laws that could restrict freedoms of press, assembly, and association.
- Catholicism as the state religion, with freedom of private worship for other religions.
The Monarchy, Political Parties, and Caciquismo
The Spanish monarchy was restored under Alfonso XII (1875-1885), followed by a regency under his wife, Maria Christina of Austria, and then the reign of Alfonso XIII (1902-1931). The Restoration regime was based on two main parties: the Conservative Party, led by Cánovas del Castillo, representing landowners and economic elites, and the Liberal Party, led by Sagasta, representing the middle classes and professionals. Both parties supported the monarchy, the Constitution, and a liberal state based on property, order, capitalism, and centralism. They differed primarily on suffrage (restricted for Conservatives, universal for Liberals), freedoms, and the Church’s role.
To ensure stability, Cánovas and Sagasta established the Pact of El Pardo, agreeing to alternate in power every four years. Sagasta introduced universal male suffrage in 1890. However, the electoral system was rife with corruption and manipulation, known as caciquismo. Local bosses (caciques) controlled elections through rigged voting lists, vote buying, and intimidation. This system marginalized significant segments of society, particularly radicals, and limited their representation.
Objections to the System: Republicanism, Nationalism, and Trade Unions
Despite universal male suffrage, the Restoration system faced opposition from various groups:
- Carlists: Following their defeat in 1876, they adapted to liberalism and presented themselves as the sole defenders of Catholicism.
- Republicans: Moderates merged with Liberals, while progressives, led by Nicolás Salmerón, participated in elections. Other republican factions emerged, including the radical party of Alejandro Lerroux and the Reformist Republican Party of Melquíades Álvarez.
- Nationalists: Movements emerged in Catalonia, the Basque Country, and Galicia, advocating for regional autonomy and cultural recognition. In Catalonia, the Lliga Regionalista, led by Francesc Cambó, gained prominence. In the Basque Country, Sabino Arana founded the Basque Nationalist Party (PNV). Galician nationalism remained a minority movement.
- Labor Organizations: Anarchism gained a foothold, particularly in Catalonia and Andalusia, with factions advocating for unionism and others resorting to terrorism. The socialist movement, led by Pablo Iglesias, founded the Spanish Socialist Workers’ Party (PSOE) and the General Union of Workers (UGT), advocating for workers’ rights and participating in strikes.
These opposition movements challenged the existing political order and contributed to the eventual downfall of the Restoration system.