Revolutions in America and France: A Historical Analysis
The Origins of the Conflict: The American Revolution
The American Revolution was a conflict between the settlers of New England and Great Britain. The origin of the problem had an economic basis. The colonies developed their own economic system. In the colonies, the Colonial Pact ruled, and the assemblies could collect some of the taxes. This ended with the conflict-generating taxes. The British government established the Tea Acts, which sought to monopolize the tea trade and could ruin American merchants.
Revolutionary War (1775-1783)
In 1774, the representatives of the thirteen colonies met in Philadelphia for the first Congress, which drafted a bill of rights. Thomas Jefferson wrote it, and it was the basis of the Declaration of Independence of the United States, signed on July 4, 1776. The development of the war entered its decisive phase with the victories of the colonists at Saratoga and Yorktown. This led to the signing of the Peace of Versailles.
The Legacy of the American Revolution
The Constitution of 1787 organized the new political order.
- The new state had a federal structure.
- The president controlled the executive and was elected every four years. George Washington was the first U.S. president.
- The legislature fell to Congress, which was composed of two chambers: the House of Representatives and the Senate.
- Judicial power rested with the courts. The Supreme Court controlled that laws and government actions did not violate the Constitution.
The Situation in France Before the Revolution
Society was based on estates. The deepening economic crisis affected the prices of commodities. The crisis was a financial deficit that increased with the costs of the American war. There was a political crisis. King Louis XVI was losing support among the people.
The Beginning of the French Revolution
In general, in the Estates-General, the nobility and the clergy wanted one vote per estate, while the members of the Third Estate defended the vote per person. In July, representatives of the Third Estate became known as the National Assembly. The king and the privileged tried to leave the courtroom they had occupied. The deputies gathered in the ball game court, where they swore they would remain together to draft a constitution. The National Assembly was renamed the Constituent Assembly. With the increase in bread prices, citizens rallied and stormed the Bastille.
The Work of the Constituent Assembly
Its objectives were to dismantle the old regime. To this end, a decree was approved abolishing feudal rights. On August 26, it wrote the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, which recognized personal freedoms, equality before the law, and property. In September 1791, the Constitution was promulgated.
- The political regime was a constitutional monarchy.
- It recognized national sovereignty and fundamental rights.
- Division of powers: legislative power was held by the National Assembly, the executive was held by the king, and the judiciary by the tribunals.
- The Assembly would be elected by census suffrage.
- Decentralization of administration: France was divided into 83 departments.
The Convention Girondins
The beginning of the republic marked the entry into the popular and radical phase of the revolution. Elections were called for a new assembly: the National Convention, which was controlled by the Girondins (moderate Republicans) and the more radical Jacobins, known as the Montagnards. The Convention tried Louis XVI, who was executed by guillotine. This had two effects: it drew a swift declaration of war by other powers, who formed the First Coalition, and there was a royalist uprising in the region of La Vendée.
The Convention Montagnard and Terror
The fear of the defeat of the revolution brought about a coup. The Montagnards, led by Robespierre, took power. Robespierre instituted a dictatorship in which he concentrated all powers. He tried to stem the economic crisis by limiting the maximum prices of essential items but was losing support.
The Directory and the End of the Revolution
To avoid a new dictatorship, a moderate government was established that drafted a new constitution, the Constitution of Year III. A system of census suffrage was implemented, and executive power rested with a Directory of five members. The weakness of the executive caused the riots of Vendémiaire, which were hampered by Napoleon Bonaparte. The Italian campaign ended the First Coalition. The European powers formed the Second Coalition. Napoleon gave the coup of 18 Brumaire, was proclaimed consul, and ended the Directory.
The Work of Napoleon in France
The Consulate was a personal rule based on Napoleon’s enormous political skills, which captured all the power and authority. This was reflected in the Constitution of Year VIII. To meet the Second Coalition, Napoleon moved back to Italy, where he won the Battle of Marengo and was appointed Consul for life. He began a series of reforms, including the development of the Civil Code, the creation of the Bank of France, and the Commercial Code.
The Return of Absolutism
During the Restoration, the monarchs of the old regime returned to power. The king granted letters issued, both of which recognized certain rights to the population.
The Congress of Vienna
The powers sought a new territorial distribution that would ensure lasting peace and prevent new revolutions. Main changes:
- France continued to the boundaries it had before the Revolution.
- Two states were strengthened to hinder a possible French expansion.
- Austria, Prussia, and Russia won territories evenly.
The Congress of Vienna initiated the conference system.
International Alliances Against the Revolution
- The Holy Alliance of Prussia, Russia, and Austria intervened where necessary to defend absolutism.
- The Quadruple Alliance of Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia sought to defend the order created at the Congress of Vienna.
The Revolutions of 1820 and 1830
In 1820 came the first wave of revolutions. It began in Spain, where Commander Riego ruled against the absolute monarchy of Ferdinand VII.
In 1830 came the second wave of revolutions. Its heart was France. The Bourbon King Charles X tried to end the charter granted. In response, there was a revolution that ousted him from the country, and Louis Philippe of Orleans took the throne.
The Revolutions of 1848
The revolutionary movement of 1848 was characterized by its expansion in many countries. It also had a component of social and labor revolution. It all began in France. Louis Philippe underwent a revolution in February that expelled him from France, and the Second Republic was proclaimed. The new regime did not satisfy the demands of the workers, who returned to rise in June revolutions. The bourgeoisie defeated them and developed the Constitution of 1848. Louis Napoleon Bonaparte triumphed in elections, imposed a government that ended the Republic, and proclaimed the Second Empire in 1852. The revolutions of 1848 opened a new political era and were a starting point for the unifications of Italy and Germany. They represented a breakthrough for democracy and were the starting point for an organized labor movement.