Rise of Authoritarian Monarchies & European Transformations

The Rise of Authoritarian Monarchies

During the modern age, feudal European monarchies evolved into authoritarian monarchies. Kings reinforced their power by imposing authority over the nobility and limiting the autonomy of municipalities. This new form of governance is referred to as the modern state. Authoritarian monarchies took root in France, England, and the kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula.

Instruments of Royal Power

  • Territorial Unification: Monarchs unified their territories and expanded the size of their states.
  • Control of State Powers: They imposed authority on the nobility, restricted the autonomy of municipalities, exerted influence over the allocation of positions, and summoned Parliament.
  • Improved Administration: Monarchs enhanced the efficiency of their administrations.
  • Creation of a Permanent Army: Monarchs replaced feudal troops with permanent armies.
  • Organization of Internal Relations: Diplomatic relations were established with other countries.

Economic Transformations and Social Changes

Demographic Growth

In the 15th and 16th centuries, population growth was favored by improved harvests, the eradication of the plague, and relative peace. However, population increase was slow due to high death rates from infectious diseases, limited medical development, and poor hygiene.

Economic Growth

  • Agrarian activities remained the primary occupation.
  • The handicrafts sector avoided guild control by developing a system of homeworking.
  • Trade expanded due to geographical discoveries, diversified trade routes, and the incorporation of new products from America.
  • The capitalist economic system emerged, initially as mercantilism, based on the accumulation of capital from trade.

Social Changes

  • The nobility and clergy accepted the increased power of the monarch.
  • The bourgeoisie grew wealthier through transoceanic trade, business dealings, and banking.
  • The peasantry made up the majority of the commoners. Their living conditions improved in Western Europe, while in Eastern Europe, they were more closely tied to the land.

The Reign of the Catholic Monarchs

The Dynastic Union of Castile and Aragon

The marriage of Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon created a dynastic union, where the rule of the two monarchs was the primary commonality between their territories.

Strengthening of the State

  • Territorial Unification: Began with the annexation of the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada to Castile, leading to the conquest of the peninsula, concluded with the annexation of the Kingdom of Navarre.
  • Religious Unity: The Catholic Monarchs created the Tribunal of the Inquisition to persecute heretics and Judaizers, forcing Jews and Granada’s Mudejars to convert or leave the country.
  • Establishment of the Modern State: They imposed authority over the nobility, clergy, and municipalities, gaining control over the high-ranking nobility. They reformed the administration, creating councils in Valladolid and Granada.

Expansion of Castile and Aragon

The Catholic Monarchs’ foreign policy focused on three areas: Africa, the Atlantic, and Europe.

  • Castile conquered fortresses in North Africa (Melilla, Oran, Algiers, and Tripoli), competing with Portugal in the Atlantic.
  • In Europe, Aragon continued its rivalry with France.

The Hispanic Monarchy

The 16th Century Monarchs

The kingdoms and territories of the Catholic Monarchs were inherited by their grandson, Charles I. He inherited territories in Central and Northern Europe, as well as Italy, and expanded them with conquests in America. Philip II did not inherit his father’s Central European territory, nor was he made Holy Roman Emperor.

Consolidation of Authoritarian Monarchy

Monarchs consolidated the authoritarian monarchy introduced by the Catholic Monarchs, addressed internal conflicts, and governed an extensive empire, enabling them to impose Hispanic hegemony across Europe. Their reigns coincided with demographic and economic prosperity, and a flourishing of art and culture known as the Golden Age.

Organization of the Monarchy

  • Their rule was assisted by a well-organized public administration, including royal secretaries and councils.
  • The territory was conceived as an association of states, each maintaining its own institutions, laws, and customs. The monarch was represented by a viceroy.

Government and Administration

  • New territories were governed by the Council of the Indies, created in 1524, which controlled American affairs.
  • The administration was divided into two viceroyalties: New Spain and Peru, governed by viceroys.
  • These were subdivided into governorates or provinces, controlled by governors, which were further subdivided into councils.
  • Audiencias were created for the administration of justice.

17th Century Transformations and Conflicts

Transformations of the 17th Century

  • Political Transformations: Serious international confrontations led to the decline of Spain’s hegemony in Europe.
  • Economic Transformations: The rise of commerce encouraged financial capitalism, and most states imposed mercantilism.
  • Social Transformations: The society of the three estates began to rupture due to the rise of the bourgeoisie.
  • Cultural and Artistic Transformations: The 17th century witnessed the birth of modern science and the application of experimental methods, giving rise to a scientific revolution.

European Conflicts

The Thirty Years’ War

Began as a conflict in Germany between the Catholic Emperor and Protestant German princes. Spain and the Emperor were defeated at Rocroi and signed the Treaty of Westphalia.

The Franco-Spanish War

France and Spain fought until the final years of the decade. Spain was defeated at the Battle of the Dunes and signed the Treaty of the Pyrenees, ceding Catalan territories north of the Pyrenees to France.

Authoritarian Monarchies

  • Monarchs believed in the divine origin of their power, accountable only to God.
  • Centralized administration was managed from the court by civil servants, ensuring the monarch controlled the economy, army, and that orders were obeyed.
  • Louis XIV of France was the best example of an absolute monarch, controlling all powers of state government and creating an efficient public administration and tax system.

Parliamentary Systems

  • England was the best example of a parliamentary monarchy.
  • Confrontations led to two revolutions: the 1640 revolution ended with the execution of King Charles I, and the 1688 revolution ended with the abdication of James II and the coronation of William III.
  • William III signed a Bill of Rights in 1689, obliging the king to obey laws approved by Parliament.
  • The United Provinces, having gained independence from Spain, established a republic made up of seven provinces.

Demographic Stagnation

Europe’s population grew very little during the 17th century due to poor harvests, the impact of the Thirty Years’ War, and the resurgence of the plague.

Physics Formulas

Newton’s Laws of Motion:

  • 1st Law (Inertia): v=cte -> Ft = 0
  • 2nd Law (Dynamics): Ft = mi · a
  • 3rd Law (Action-Reaction): F12 = -F21

Hooke’s Law: F= k · Δl = k · (l – l0 )

Gay-Lussac’s Law: v = cst · t -> v/t =cst

2nd Gay-Lussac’s Law: p =cst · t -> p/t = cst

Boyle and Mariotte’s Law: p · v = cst

General Formulas: F=m·a, p·V = n ·R·T