Rise of Fascism and Nazism in Europe
Fascist Ideology
Fascist ideology advocated the establishment of a totalitarian state, controlling all spheres of life. It supported a dictatorial, one-party political system based on the principle of leadership, where power rested in a charismatic leader capable of creating a general will. A personality cult of the leader was established.
Fascism was radically anti-communist and anti-capitalist, presenting a third alternative to Marxist socialism and capitalism. It defended national socialism to eliminate class conflict.
It maintained aggressive, expansionist, and militaristic nationalism, demanding a new world position for its country. Racists considered non-whites inferior.
Fascism rejected the principles of decadent Western culture, based on rationalism, materialism, and egalitarianism. It exalted irrational behavior.
It defended violence against political opponents. Violence was considered a positive and therapeutic value.
Fascist parties mobilized the masses, including them in the party, unions, and paramilitary organizations. They also extolled traditional male roles, relegating women to parenting and housework.
Social Bases of Fascism
From a social standpoint, fascist parties never achieved complete popular backing. Early followers were among disaffected social sectors, young and romantic activists strongly impacted by war. Members were added from urban and rural middle classes, and an important segment of the working class. Support from big business and landowners was critical, with funding from the army and police. The violence used by fascist organizations to frighten enemies and gain power was tolerated and even collaborated with.
The Nazi Dictatorship and the Third Reich
In Germany, the Nazis’ conquest of absolute power was faster than in Italy. Once in government, Hitler maintained his radicalism and zeal to monopolize power, ignoring his coalition partners. This unfolded in extreme violence, with Nazi paramilitary organizations continually harassing the left. The Reichstag fire, allegedly a communist plot, allowed the Nazis to suspend fundamental rights, oust communists from the Reichstag, and hold elections.
Despite repression against leftist parties, the NSDAP didn’t win an absolute majority. A new law gave the chancellor full powers to enact laws without consulting the Reichstag for four years. Hitler, now dictator, used this to eliminate all political parties except the NSDAP, turning Germany into a one-party dictatorship.
To build the new state, Hitler needed the support of the army and economic oligarchy, so he eliminated radical elements of the SA. On June 30, 1934 (the Night of the Long Knives), Hitler ordered the murder of SA leader Röhm, other leaders, and opponents. With Hindenburg’s death, Hitler, with army support, merged the presidential and chancellery offices of the Reich. This subordinated the army (Wehrmacht) and police to the Nazis. The SS and Gestapo, led by Himmler, became guarantors of the Third Reich’s policies.
The Weimar Republic
In January 1919, the new republic faced the Spartacist insurrection (a minority group in the German Social Democratic Party supporting revolution). The Social Democrats violently crushed the revolt, and its leaders, Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg, were assassinated.
Amid this crisis, elections were held for a Constituent Assembly in Weimar. This assembly drafted a constitution establishing a federal republic based on democratic principles (universal suffrage for men and women). A Social Democrat was elected president every seven years. Friedrich Ebert was elected in extraordinary elections.
The Center Party, Democratic Party, and Social Democratic Party won 76% of the vote and formed a coalition government (Weimar Coalition). The Treaty of Versailles was a heavy burden. In its early years, the republic experienced serious economic instability. Hyperinflation ruined the republic. Between 1924 and 1929, Weimar enjoyed stability after the victorious powers of World War I decided to help Germany.
Beginnings of Nazi Germany
In 1919, in Munich, the German Workers’ Party (DAP), one of many nationalist parties spreading illiberal and racist propaganda, was founded. With Hitler’s accession, the history of the Nazi movement began. The name changed to the National Socialist German Workers’ Party (NSDAP).
Like Italian Fascism, it defended national socialism. Two central ideas were: establishing a strong nationalist dictatorship to preserve racial purity, and uniting all Germans in a Greater Germany. Through hyperinflation and nationalist fervor, they attempted a coup (the Munich Putsch), which failed. Hitler was imprisoned.
After his release, Hitler refounded the party, rethinking its program to broaden its social base. He limited anti-capitalist principles, effectively using anti-Semitic and anti-communist sentiments. He changed strategy, transforming his party into a mass movement. He decided to participate in parliamentary politics, using propaganda, rallies, marches, uniforms, and military instruction to gain power.
Dates – Unit 10
- 1922: Mussolini’s general strike in power.
- 1933: Hitler appointed chancellor. The Reichstag fire; the Enabling Act grants Hitler full powers.
- 1935: Nuremberg Laws exclude Jews from German citizenship and prohibit mixed marriages.
- 1939: Annexation of Czechoslovakia. Invasion of Poland.
Dictatorship
A system of government imposing a single party, eliminating parliamentary representation and individual rights.
Totalitarianism
A type of dictatorship where the state controls everything: politics, economy, society, religion, etc.