Rise of Fascism and Nazism in Europe

Posted on Oct 21, 2024 in History

Rise of Fascism in Italy

The March on Rome (1922)

In 1922, the National Fascist Party (PNF) launched the March on Rome, aiming to seize power and restore order. They believed the government was incapable and rejected a democratic approach. Between October 28 and 30, 1922, around 40,000 Fascists marched on Rome. This event, known as the March of the Blackshirts, prompted the government to propose a state of emergency, suspending fundamental freedoms. However, the King refused to sign the declaration, leading to the government’s resignation. Subsequently, the King appointed Benito Mussolini as the new Prime Minister, paving the way for a dictatorship.

Establishment of the Fascist Dictatorship

Following the murder of Socialist Deputy Giacomo Matteotti in 1924, the Fascist dictatorship solidified. Key actions included:

  • 1925: The government gained the power to enact laws, accountable only to the King. Parliament became a mere figurehead.
  • 1926: All political parties and unions, except the Fascist Party, were banned. Press freedom (excluding pro-Fascist media) was suppressed.
  • Special courts, composed of Fascists rather than judges, were created to try political opponents.
  • A political police force was established to persecute anti-Fascists.
  • Public administration was purged of non-Fascists.

These measures transformed Italy into a dictatorship and a totalitarian state.

The Fascist Economy

The Fascist economy was characterized by:

  • Strong state intervention
  • Protectionism
  • Economic autarky

This led to various campaigns, including the Battle for Wheat, the Battle for Land, the Battle for the Lira (aimed at increasing its value), and the Battle for Births. While large entrepreneurs benefited, the average Italian’s standard of living remained below the European average, with high unemployment and stagnant real wages.

Control and Propaganda

As a totalitarian state, Fascism aimed to control all aspects of citizens’ lives. Key initiatives included:

  • The Opera Nazionale Balilla, a mandatory organization for children aged 4-14, later transitioning to the Youth Fascist organizations and university groups.
  • The Opera Nazionale Dopolavoro, which organized adults’ leisure time.

Education emphasized Fascist ideology, with teachers required to wear black shirts and pledge allegiance to the regime. Propaganda through the press, radio, and books glorified Fascism and Mussolini, fostering a cult of personality.

The Rise of Nazism in Germany

The Weimar Republic and its Challenges (1919-1933)

After World War I, Germany became a federal parliamentary republic under the Weimar Constitution. However, it faced numerous challenges:

  • The Spartacist Rebellion of 1919, a communist uprising.
  • The rise of nationalism among former soldiers, who blamed Weimar politicians for accepting the Treaty of Versailles.
  • The Treaty of Versailles, which many Germans considered humiliating and imposed heavy war reparations, leading to hyperinflation and widespread economic hardship.

Despite an economic recovery in the mid-1920s (the”Roaring Twentie”), the Great Depression of 1929 triggered renewed unemployment, poverty, and social unrest, ultimately contributing to the Weimar Republic’s downfall.

The Nazi Party’s Rise to Power

Nazism originated from the small German Workers’ Party (DAP), characterized by antisemitism, pan-Germanism (the desire to unite all Germans in one state), and rejection of the Treaty of Versailles. In 1920, the DAP merged with other small parties, becoming the National Socialist German Workers’ Party (NSDAP). Adolf Hitler assumed leadership in 1921, establishing paramilitary units (Sturmabteilung or SA) to conduct campaigns against Jews, unions, and intellectuals. After the failed 1923 Beer Hall Putsch in Munich, Hitler was imprisoned, during which he wrote Mein Kampf (My Struggle).

Key tenets of Nazi ideology as outlined in Mein Kampf included:

  • Contempt for democracy
  • Hatred of Jews
  • Superiority of the Aryan race
  • The need for Lebensraum (living space) for Germans, implying territorial expansion

Hitler’s Seizure of Power and the Establishment of the Nazi Dictatorship

In January 1933, Hitler was appointed Chancellor. He quickly established a dictatorship:

  • The Reichstag fire (February 27, 1933), blamed on communists, provided a pretext to suppress communist activity and curtail civil liberties.
  • The Nazis won an absolute majority in the March 1933 elections.
  • Hitler secured the power to enact laws without parliamentary approval.
  • Following Hindenburg’s death in 1934, Hitler assumed the presidency, becoming Führer (leader), marking the end of the Weimar Republic and the beginning of the Third Reich.

The Nazi Totalitarian State

Hitler transformed Germany into a totalitarian police state:

  • All parties and unions were suppressed, except the Nazi Party and the Nazi-controlled German Labour Front.
  • Public administration was purged of political opponents.
  • Special courts were established to try political crimes.
  • The SS (Schutzstaffel), initially Hitler’s personal bodyguards, became the primary instrument of terror.
  • The Gestapo (secret state police) investigated and persecuted political opponents.
  • Concentration camps, initially for political prisoners, later became extermination camps for Jews, Roma, communists, homosexuals, and others deemed undesirable.
  • The Night of the Long Knives (June 30, 1934) eliminated potential rivals within the Nazi Party, consolidating the SS’s power.

The Nazi Economy

The Nazi economy involved strong state intervention and autarky. Upon gaining power, Hitler increased military production, undertook large-scale public works, and favored investment by entrepreneurs. This was supported by big industrialists who saw it as a way to prevent a communist revolution. By 1939, Germany had become the world’s second-largest industrial power, although this was achieved at the cost of workers’ purchasing power and rights.

Persecution of the Jews and the Holocaust

Nazi ideology promoted the superiority of the Aryan race and the inferiority of other races. This led to the persecution of Jews, beginning with boycotts of Jewish businesses in 1933. The Nuremberg Laws (1935) stripped Jews of German citizenship, prohibited marriages between Aryans and Jews, and later mandated the wearing of identifying badges. Kristallnacht (Night of Broken Glass, November 9-10, 1938) marked a significant escalation of violence. The”Final Solution” the systematic extermination of Jews, was implemented during World War II, resulting in the deaths of approximately six million Jews in the Holocaust.

Hitler’s Expansionist Policies

Hitler’s foreign policy was based on:

  • Revision of the Treaty of Versailles
  • Acquisition of Lebensraum (living space) through territorial expansion into Eastern Europe
  • Destruction of perceived enemies, including communists and Jews, ultimately targeting the Soviet Union

Starting in 1936, Hitler began to remilitarize Germany, annex Austria (1938), and demand the Sudetenland from Czechoslovakia. The Munich Agreement (1938) appeased Hitler by granting him the Sudetenland. However, in 1939, after signing a non-aggression pact with the Soviet Union, Germany invaded Poland, triggering World War II.

Discussion Questions

What is anti-Fascism?

Anti-Fascism opposes Fascism due to its undemocratic, illiberal, and anti-socialist nature. Fascism’s hierarchical structure, emphasizing inequality and the soldier model (uniforms, anthems, flags, and leaders), contrasts sharply with the principles of equality and individual rights.

What were the foundations of Nazi ideology?

Mein Kampf highlights four core ideas: intense antisemitism, the superiority of the Aryan race, contempt for democracy, and the need for Lebensraum (living space) through territorial expansion.

What were Hitler’s actions against the Jews?

Hitler’s hatred of Jews stemmed from his belief in racial purity. Persecution began with boycotts in 1933, followed by the Nuremberg Laws, forced identification, Kristallnacht, and ultimately, the systematic extermination of Jews during the Holocaust.

What was Hitler’s expansionism after 1936?

Hitler’s expansionism involved remilitarization, the annexation of Austria, demands on Czechoslovakia, and ultimately, the invasion of Poland, which initiated World War II.