Rise of Fascism and Nazism: The Path to World War II
The Aftermath of World War I
Germany’s Resentment
Germany, defeated in World War I, harbored deep resentment over the territorial losses and war reparations imposed by the Treaty of Versailles in 1919. Key provisions of the treaty included:
- Payment of reparations to the Allies for economic losses.
- Reduction of the German army to 100,000 men and prohibition of modern weaponry (tanks, aircraft, and submarines).
- Reduction of the German fleet to ships under 10,000 tons.
- The Great Depression of the 1920s and 30s created unemployment and lowered the middle class’s living standards in Germany, paving the way for German grievances and the rise of the National Socialist Party (Nazi).
Italy’s Discontent
Italy, despite being on the winning side, felt its territorial gains under the Treaty of Versailles were insufficient to compensate for the war’s cost and its ambitions. Italians received Trento and Trieste, but desired more. Poverty and famine further fueled popular discontent.
Japan’s Frustration
Japan, also an Allied victor, was disappointed by its limited territorial expansion in East Asia.
Anticommunist Ideologies: Fascism and Nazism
Totalitarian ideologies took hold in Russia, Italy, and Germany. Despite their differences, these systems shared a common thread: suppression of political freedom and single-party rule.
Fascism in Italy
In 1914, Mussolini founded the newspaper “Il popolo d’Italia,” using it to advocate for Italy’s entry into World War I. After the war, he created a veterans’ union called the “Fascio di combatimento,” which became the foundation of the nationalist and anti-communist fascist movement. Fascists fought against communism and the weak government, organizing popular uprisings that ousted socialist mayors.
Benito Mussolini established the first fascist dictatorship in Italy in 1922. His regime was nationalistic and totalitarian, organizing the economy based on guilds that grouped workers and employers. Corporatism was a key characteristic of fascism. The regime also prioritized military preparedness.
Mussolini achieved some economic success, increasing production and ruling Italy with an iron fist, destroying all non-fascist parties and political opponents.
In 1937, Italy joined the anti-communist pact signed by Germany and Japan, solidifying the emerging alliances.
Nazism in Germany
Adolf Hitler believed that natural law dictated the dominance of the strong over the weak. He also believed in the natural tendency towards racial purity, basing his ideology on the fight for the purity of the Aryan race, the core ethnicity of Germans.
Under Hitler, Aryans were considered a privileged, “culture-creating” race. Conversely, he viewed Jews as destructive to culture. Hitler’s anti-Semitism fueled relentless persecution, starting with the seizure of Jewish property, escalating to widespread discrimination, and culminating in the murder of six million Jews in concentration camps.
Hitler believed the state should be organized according to an aristocratic principle, with authority residing in a leader chosen by the people. This explains his use of the title Führer, or leader, in his totalitarian regime. Hitler also considered the conquest of “living space” in Europe, implying territorial expansion, crucial for Germany’s future.
The Nazis’ rise was facilitated by the 1929 economic crisis. People were desperate for work, and many capitalists feared the growing strength of the communists after the Russian Revolution. The army also desired revenge for Germany’s humiliation in World War I. These factors made the Nazi ideology appealing to German masses seeking to restore national pride.
Japan’s Totalitarianism
While not officially fascist, Japan’s government was heavily influenced by the military, which imposed a similar form of totalitarianism. The Japanese military used a minor clash with Chinese troops near Mukden (now Shenyang) in 1931 as a pretext to seize Manchuria, establishing the puppet state of Manchukuo in 1932. They also occupied key Chinese ports between 1937 and 1938.
Nationalism and Imperialism
The Nazi regime’s expansionist desires led to the invasion of Poland, triggering World War II.
Conflict between Poland and Germany was inevitable. Poland, a Slavic state, obstructed Hitler’s eastward expansion. Since 1919, Germany had sought to revise its borders at Poland’s expense, citing the presence of a German minority and the “injustice” of the Upper Silesia borders. The status of Danzig and the Polish Corridor also caused friction between Warsaw and Berlin. Danzig, a free city under League of Nations control since 1919, was claimed by Germany due to its German-speaking population.
German Aggression
Hitler’s expansionist campaign began with the annexation of Austria in March 1938. Italy supported him, while Britain and France, intimidated by Germany’s rearmament, acquiesced. The U.S., constrained by its neutrality law, was limited in its ability to intervene.
In September 1938, Hitler threatened war to annex Czechoslovakia’s western border region, home to 3.5 million ethnic Germans. British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain negotiated the Munich Pact, in which Czechoslovakia, pressured by Britain and France, ceded the territory in exchange for Hitler’s promise not to seize more Czech land. The agreement failed; Hitler invaded the rest of Czechoslovakia in March 1939. Alarmed, Britain and France pledged to support Poland if Germany threatened its independence.
The 1929 Economic Crisis
The post-World War I period saw a focus on reconstruction and full employment. The early 1920s were prosperous, leading to a belief in the link between prosperity and peace. Many reconstruction projects relied on credit, and Germany’s war reparations were financed by loans, primarily from the U.S. and Britain. U.S. credit fueled European prosperity.
On October 19, 1929, the New York Stock Exchange crashed, triggering a global financial panic. 1929 marked the beginning of an economic crisis that plunged millions into poverty and despair. The crisis spread rapidly to Europe and the rest of the world as U.S. investment dried up. The immediate consequence was widespread misery, making desperate people vulnerable to totalitarian doctrines promising economic recovery and employment.
The League of Nations’ Failure
In 1935, Mussolini attacked and quickly conquered Ethiopia, despite economic sanctions imposed by the League of Nations. England’s allowance of Italian troop transports through the Suez Canal discredited the League and strengthened the Rome-Berlin axis.
The League of Nations failed to prevent further conflicts and maintain international peace. It couldn’t enforce a ceasefire as Japan, Italy, and Germany launched their aggressions. While economic and diplomatic sanctions were applied, offending nations chose to leave the organization rather than comply.
The Spanish Civil War (1936-1939)
The Spanish Civil War served as a testing ground for weapons later used in World War II. Hitler, having disregarded the Versailles Treaty’s disarmament clauses, rebuilt his air force and military, testing new weapons in Spain.
Germany and Italy provided Franco with war materiel and troops against the Spanish Republican government in 1936. Other powers, avoiding direct confrontation, remained on the sidelines.
The Pact of Steel and the Axis
In May 1939, Hitler and Mussolini signed the “Pact of Steel,” a strong offensive alliance committing Germany and Italy to mutual military assistance in case of war. The Berlin-Rome Axis was solidified.
The Krupp steel complex, linked to the Nazis, played a key role in supplying materials for the German war effort.
Treaties signed by Germany, Italy, and Japan from 1936 to 1941 (when Bulgaria joined) formed the Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis.
The Nazi-Soviet Pact
On August 23, 1939, Hitler and Stalin signed a non-aggression pact, despite their ideological differences. This allowed Hitler to attack Poland without fear of Soviet intervention on the Eastern Front. A secret protocol granted Stalin freedom of action in Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and parts of Poland and Romania.