Rise of Industrial Capitalism and the Labor Movement
The Dawn of Industrialization
Demographic and Agricultural Revolutions
From the mid-18th century, Europe experienced a population surge, rising from 140 million in 1750 to 266 million by 1850. This growth, particularly pronounced in Britain, fueled demand for food, leading to agricultural innovations. Land privatization and new cultivation techniques, such as the Norfolk system, increased productivity. The introduction of new crops like potatoes and maize diversified diets.
Technological Advancements
Technological innovation played a crucial role in the Industrial Revolution. Simple yet effective machinery replaced manual labor, boosting productivity and lowering production costs. The steam engine, powered by coal, revolutionized production and transportation. Factories emerged, concentrating workers and machines, and implementing the division of labor.
The Textile Industry
Britain’s textile industry, particularly cotton, was the first to mechanize. Innovations like the flying shuttle and spinning jenny increased production. The power loom completed the mechanization process.
Coal and Iron
The iron and steel industry also underwent significant changes. Coke, derived from coal, provided higher heat for furnaces, increasing iron production. The Bessemer converter transformed iron into steel, further stimulating innovation.
Transportation Revolution
Transportation improved dramatically with the development of the steam locomotive and steamboat. The first passenger railway connected Manchester and Liverpool, boosting the steel industry and reducing travel times. Steamboats, made of iron, revolutionized sea travel.
The Rise of Capitalism and its Impact
Trade and Economic Theories
The Industrial Revolution led to a market economy driven by increased production and purchasing power. Improved transportation facilitated internal and international trade. While Britain advocated for free trade (librecambio), other nations adopted protectionist policies.
Liberalism and Capitalism
Thinkers like Adam Smith established the principles of economic liberalism, emphasizing self-interest, market regulation through supply and demand, and minimal government intervention. Industrial capitalism emerged, with the bourgeoisie owning the means of production and employing workers for wages. This system, however, was prone to economic crises due to overproduction and fluctuating demand.
Banking and Finance
Banks played a vital role in capitalism’s development, providing capital to businesses, facilitating payments, and acting as intermediaries between savers and industrialists. Corporations emerged, raising capital through shares traded on stock exchanges.
Industrial Expansion and New Technologies
Industrialization spread to other countries, including France, Belgium, Germany, the USA, Russia, and Japan. New energy sources like electricity and oil replaced coal. The internal combustion engine revolutionized transportation, leading to the rise of the automobile and airplane industries. Other industries, such as metallurgy and chemicals, also flourished.
Industrial Organization and Labor
New Production Methods
Taylorism, a new working method, divided the production process into specialized tasks, maximizing efficiency and reducing costs. Ford adopted this system, leading to mass production and lower vehicle prices.
Industrial Concentration
Technological innovations required significant capital investment, leading to industrial concentration and the formation of cartels, trusts, and monopolies to limit competition.
The Bourgeoisie
The bourgeoisie, owners of industries and businesses, became the dominant social group. Their lifestyle and values became the societal ideal.
The Workers
The working class, or proletariat, provided labor for factories in exchange for wages. They faced harsh working conditions, long hours, and low pay, often requiring women and children to work. Poor sanitation led to widespread disease.
The Labor Movement
Early Resistance
Workers initially resisted industrialization through Luddism, destroying machinery they blamed for unemployment. However, they gradually developed class consciousness and formed organizations to defend their interests.
Mutual Aid Societies and Trade Unions
Mutual aid societies provided economic assistance to members in times of need. Trade unions emerged, uniting workers within the same industry to advocate for better working conditions, including the right of association, reduced working hours, higher wages, and child labor regulations.
Marxism and Socialism
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels critiqued the exploitation of the working class and advocated for a workers’ revolution to overthrow capitalism. They envisioned a classless society with socialized property.
Anarchism
Anarchists rejected authority, particularly the state, and advocated for collective ownership. They promoted revolutionary action to create an egalitarian society.
Internationalism
Marxists and anarchists promoted proletarian internationalism, uniting workers across nations. The International Workers’ Association was formed but dissolved due to ideological differences. The Second International, a socialist organization, aimed to coordinate socialist party programs and activities.