Rise of Islam: Arabia, Muhammad, Caliphate, Culture

Islam’s Emergence in 7th Century Arabia

Islam emerged in seventh-century Arabia, a peninsula situated between the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf. In the seventh century, it exhibited significant internal division across different areas:

Arabia Before Islam: Divisions

Political Fragmentation

The territory was divided among numerous independent tribes.

Economic Landscape

The interior of the peninsula was inhabited by Bedouin tribes who practiced nomadic pastoralism.

Religious Diversity

The Bedouins were largely animists or fetishists, while the settled farmers and traders were often polytheistic.

Prophet Muhammad and Arabian Unification

Muhammad was born in Mecca around the year 570 into a respected family. He began preaching his doctrine in the city of Mecca. His denial of polytheism and the fact that his early followers were often from humble backgrounds provoked opposition from wealthy Meccan merchants. Following the Hijra (migration) to Medina, Muhammad became the highest political and religious authority there. He gathered followers and eventually conquered Mecca in the year 630. By the time of Muhammad’s death, almost all of Arabia was united under the banner of Islam, and its expansion began.

Understanding Islam: Submission to Allah

What is Islam? The word Islam signifies submission to the will of the one God (Allah). Believers are known as Muslims (those who submit).

The Caliphate: Rule and Administration

After Muhammad’s death, leadership passed to Caliphs. Major caliphates included the Rashidun (often called Orthodox), Umayyad, and Abbasid dynasties.

The Caliph’s Dual Role

The Caliph was the highest authority of the empire, combining religious and political power. As the chief religious leader, the Caliph presided over the Friday communal prayer. As the political head, the Caliph governed, administered justice, and directed the army.

Governing the Empire

The administration of the empire was divided into provinces (*wilayat*) under the authority of a governor (*wali* or *amir*) and often a separate financial superintendent (*amil*). In towns and cities, *qadis* (judges) administered justice based on Islamic law.

Taxation Policies

People generally paid two main types of taxes: one based on land ownership (*kharaj*) and a personal poll tax (*jizya*) for non-Muslims. The latter tax was terminated if an individual converted to Islam.

Economic Life in the Islamic World

Agriculture, Land, and Trade

In fertile irrigated valleys, crops like wheat, barley, cotton, rice, and sugar cane were cultivated. In desert areas, the main activity remained nomadic herding, particularly of camels and sheep. Across their empire, Muslims introduced and spread agricultural products from the East, such as sugarcane, cotton, saffron, mulberry (for silk production), and various vegetables. They also improved irrigation systems. Conquered land was often maintained in the hands of its former owners in exchange for tax payments. Land that belonged to the previous state, or roughly one-fifth of spoils, often went to the Caliph (state treasury), and the rest could be distributed among the Muslim aristocracy.

Flourishing Cities

Cities like Cordoba, Baghdad, and Damascus experienced significant development (*desenvolvement*). The main activities were crafts and trade.

Social Structure and Daily Living

Social Classes

  • Elite: A relatively small group, often of Arab origin, possessing properties (sometimes from the spoils of war) and occupying senior administrative and military positions.
  • General Population: Included the remaining populace, consisting of peasants, artisans, and merchants, many belonging to conquered peoples who gradually integrated or converted.

Inside a Muslim Home

In wealthier families, houses were often organized around a central courtyard. The ground floor (*aparta baixa*) typically housed the kitchen, pantry, storage, and service areas, while the upper floor contained private rooms (*habitacions privades*). The homes of the poor might have only one or two rooms. Furniture (*mobiliari*) typically consisted of carpets, cushions or low couches, low tables, chests used for storage (acting as wardrobes), and other functional items.

Distinctive Islamic Architecture

Architectural Characteristics

  • Use of relatively simple materials like brick, tile, plaster, and wood, often transformed by decoration.
  • Use of columns and pillars as supports.
  • Prevalence of various arch types, including the horseshoe arch.
  • Use of lintels and diverse vaulted ceilings.
  • Often sober exteriors contrasting with richly decorated interiors.
  • Emphasis on geometric patterns, calligraphy, and vegetal motifs (arabesques) in decoration.
  • Highly compartmentalized interiors often covered with marble, glazed tiles (*azulejos*), carved plaster, and intricate wood panels.

The most representative types of buildings were mosques and palaces, although other constructions like markets (*souks*), baths (*hammams*), and fortifications were also important.

Mosque: Place of Worship

Mosques were the buildings where Muslims went to pray (*salat*). Their design aimed to isolate the faithful from the distractions of the outside world and ensure tranquility during prayer.

Courtyard (Sahn) and Minaret

The courtyard (*sahn*) is typically an open space, often surrounded by a portico (*riwaq*). In the center, there is frequently a fountain or basin for ritual purification (*wudu*) before prayer. One of the most recognizable features is the *minaret*, a tower from which the *muezzin* calls the faithful to prayer five times a day.

Prayer Hall (Haram) and Qibla

The prayer hall (*haram*) is a covered space, often divided into aisles by rows of columns or pillars supporting arches (*arcuacions*) and walls. One wall, the *qibla* wall, is oriented towards the holy city of Mecca. This wall usually contains a niche called the *mihrab*, indicating the direction of prayer.

Palaces: Caliphal Residences

Palaces served as the residences of the Caliphs and other rulers. They often had distinct sections: a public area (*mashwar* or *diwan*) which might include the throne room and audience hall, and a private area (*haram*) containing the ruler’s living quarters, baths, and the women’s apartments. Gardens and water features (fountains, pools) played an important role in palace design, providing beauty and cooling.