Rise of Islam: History, Culture, and Legacy
The Birth of Islam
Arabia Before Muhammad
Islam emerged in 7th-century Arabia, a region mostly desert between the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf. Arabia was divided into tribes, each with a leader. The economy varied: nomadic Bedouins practiced pastoralism, while settled populations engaged in agriculture and trade, especially in cities like Mecca and Medina, key stops on trade routes between India and the Mediterranean. Religiously, Bedouins were fetishists, while farmers and traders were polytheists. The Arabic language and the worship of the Black Stone were unifying factors. In the 7th century, Muhammad united the Arabs under a new religion, Islam.
Muhammad and Islam
Born in Mecca in 570 to a wealthy family, Muhammad engaged in trade, encountering Christian and Jewish beliefs. At forty, he received revelations from Allah and began preaching Islam, meaning “submission to the will of one God (Allah).”
The Muslim Doctrine
Muhammad’s teachings, compiled after his death in the Koran, the sacred book of Muslims, provide religious precepts and rules of conduct. These include the five pillars: profession of faith, prayer five times a day facing Mecca, communal prayer on Fridays at the mosque, fasting during Ramadan, and pilgrimage to Mecca. The doctrine also addresses social aspects, permitting polygamy but banning alcohol, pork, and gambling.
The Beginnings of Islam
Muhammad’s preaching in Mecca, challenging polytheism and attracting the poor, faced opposition from wealthy merchants. He was forced to leave Mecca in 622 AD, migrating to Medina (the Hegira), marking the start of the Islamic calendar. In Medina, Muhammad became a political and religious leader, building an army that conquered Mecca in 630. After his death, Islam expanded rapidly.
The Spread of Islam
Muslim expansion occurred in stages, fueled by faith, a strong army (with cavalry playing a key role), the desire for spoils of war, and the weakness of their opponents.
- Orthodox Caliphate (632-661): Muhammad’s successors (caliphs), chosen from his close circle, ruled from Medina, expanding the empire to Syria, Palestine, Egypt, and Mesopotamia.
- Umayyad Caliphate (661-750): The Umayyad family established hereditary rule, moving the capital to Damascus. The empire expanded westward across North Africa and into the Iberian Peninsula, and eastward to the Indus Valley and Turkestan.
- Abbasid Caliphate (750-1055): The Abbasids overthrew the Umayyads, moving the capital to Baghdad. They conquered Crete and Sicily (827), but expansion halted due to internal conflicts, ending with the Turkish conquest in 1055.
The Organization of the Empire
Political Organization
The caliph was the supreme religious and political authority, leading prayers, administering justice, and directing the army. The empire was organized into ministries (army, post, finance) overseen by the vizier (the caliph’s chief advisor). Territories were divided into provinces, each with a governor (wali), a financial superintendent, and judges (kadis). Non-Muslims paid a special tax.
Economic Organization
Agricultural Activity
Agriculture was the economic backbone. In the East, fertile irrigated valleys produced wheat, barley, rice, cotton, and sugarcane, while nomadic Bedouins raised camels and sheep. In the West, Muslims introduced and improved irrigation, increasing yields of crops like sugarcane, rice, cotton, and eggplant.
Urban Activities
Cities like Damascus, Baghdad, and Cordoba thrived as centers of crafts and trade. Artisans produced linen, cotton, carpets, and paper in small workshops. Trade flourished due to the empire’s strategic location between Asia and Europe, facilitated by various forms of payment (gold, silver, bills of exchange, checks). Luxury goods (metals, silks, salt, slaves) were transported by land caravans and sea routes, linking the Mediterranean, Indian Ocean, Africa, the Far East, and Northern Europe.
Society and Everyday Life
Social Groups
The aristocracy consisted of a small Arab elite with large estates and high positions. The masses included peasants, artisans, and merchants from conquered peoples, divided into those who converted to Islam (mawali) and those who retained their faith (dhimmi), paying higher taxes. Slaves occupied the lowest social rung.
Aspects of Everyday Life
- The Muslim House: Houses were simple, unadorned on the exterior, with few windows. Wealthy homes had courtyards and two floors; poorer homes had one or two rooms.
- Family and the Role of Women: The family was patriarchal. Wealthy men could have up to four wives and concubines. Women were under the authority of male guardians (father, then husband), primarily responsible for housework and child-rearing, though they could request divorce and access certain jobs.
- Diet and Health: Forbidden foods included wine, pork, and blood. Food was seasoned with herbs and spices. Hygiene was important, especially for prayer, and cities had public bathhouses.
The Artistic Legacy
Islamic Architecture
Islamic architecture blended various styles, characterized by the use of simple materials, pillars and columns, horseshoe arches, sober exteriors, and richly decorated interiors with geometric patterns, stylized plant motifs, and inscriptions. Marble, tiles, plaster, and wood were common decorative elements.
The Mosque
The mosque, a place for Muslim prayer, was designed to create a peaceful environment for worship. Initially rectangular, resembling Muhammad’s house, mosques evolved to include various structures. Key features include:
- The Patio: An open courtyard with a central fountain for ablution, surrounded by a portico, and often featuring a minaret.
- The Prayer Hall: A covered space oriented towards Mecca, containing a mihrab (niche indicating the direction of prayer) and a minbar (pulpit for the prayer leader).
Palaces and Other Buildings
Palaces served as residences for caliphs, with public areas (throne rooms, courtrooms) and private quarters. Other buildings included fortresses, tombs, and the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, an octagonal monument commemorating Muhammad’s ascension to heaven.
The Muslim Culture
Key Features
- Cultural Synthesis: Muslims created a unique culture by blending classical and oriental traditions from conquered peoples.
- Cultural Transmission: They acted as cultural intermediaries between East and West, spreading the use of paper, the compass, and gunpowder.
- Centers of Learning: Major cities (Baghdad, Damascus, Cairo, Cordoba) had maktaba (schools) and madrasas (colleges), where Greek and Roman philosophical works were translated.
- Scientific Contributions: Advances were made in astronomy (Al-Fazani built the first astrolabe), mathematics (Al-Khwarizmi pioneered algebra), medicine (incorporating Galenic knowledge, building hospitals, performing surgeries), and chemistry (alchemy).
- Flourishing of Literature, Philosophy, History, and Geography.