Rise of Modern Europe: 15th Century Transformations
The Beginnings of the Modern Age
From the mid-fifteenth century, Europe underwent a series of transformations that resulted in the launch of a new era in history: the Modern Age.
Birth of the Authoritarian Monarchies
The feudal monarchy transitioned into authoritarian monarchies in Western Europe during the 15th and 16th centuries. This new form of state organization was analyzed by Machiavelli in his work The Prince, where he affirmed that monarchs could even benefit from amoral actions if they served the interests of the state.
The Instruments of Royal Power
To unify the territory, monarchs consolidated their ancient kingdoms and lordships through wars. They sought to subject all powers to the authority of the king. To better manage their expanded territories, they established fixed royal courts in cities that became state capitals. They also established standing armies to replace the medieval noble troops. Finally, they organized international relations through diplomacy, with ambassadors in each country representing the interests of the monarchy.
Economic Change
Agriculture: Due to economic development, there was a growing demand for food and raw materials, leading to the plowing of new lands.
Crafts: Crafts continued to be organized in guilds. However, population growth and new markets led to an increase in production. New forms of production methods were applied, most notably the domestic industry, where traders provided raw materials and tools to farmers, who would then produce goods when they were not working in the fields. The traders would then collect and sell these goods.
Trade: Trade experienced significant development due to increasing demand and new trade routes.
- A: Internal Trade: This trade changed little due to delays in communication and transport.
- B: Foreign Trade (Triangular Trade): This was the most developed form of trade. It involved a triangular route between Europe, Africa, and America. Europe contributed manufactured goods, Africa provided slaves to America, and America provided raw materials and a market for European goods.
- C: Mediterranean Trade: Trade in the Italian cities and Aragon lost importance due to the Turkish threat and the development of trade in the Atlantic.
- D: Atlantic Trade: This trade focused on the North Sea and trade with America, primarily from Lisbon and Seville.
Social Transformations
The nobility and the clergy, while still privileged and powerful groups in the economy, ultimately fell under the power of the king. The bourgeoisie became the upwardly mobile social group due to their wealth from trade and banking. In Western Europe, the peasantry worked on their own land or as employees of the lords.
The Lutheran Reformation
The Lutheran Reformation began with Martin Luther, who published his 95 Theses in Wittenberg. The Pope excommunicated Luther, which provoked a division in Christianity into Catholics, Orthodox, and Protestants. The characteristics of the Lutheran Reformation were:
- Salvation is obtained by faith, not through indulgences, which were rejected as a form of forgiving sins.
- Free interpretation of the Bible, which was translated into German.
- Rejection of the religious hierarchy and celibacy.
- Removal of the cult of the Virgin and the saints.
- Acceptance of only two sacraments: Baptism and the Eucharist.
The Counter-Reformation
The Catholic Church reacted to the crisis and the expansion of Protestantism. To address the problem of Protestantism, the following decisions were emphasized:
- The dogma was defined, stating that the Pope never errs.
- The Church hierarchy was ratified.
- Bishops were required to reside in their dioceses and were prohibited from accumulating church offices.
- Priests were required to reside in their parishes and fulfill their duties.
- Priests were to be trained in seminaries.
- The Society of Jesus (Jesuits) was created to disseminate the ideas of the Council of Trent and counter the spread of Protestantism.