Rise of Modern Nation-States & the Renaissance (15th-16th Centuries)
The Rise of Modern Nation-States
Characteristics of Modern Nation-States
- Control over a large, unified territory
- Subjugation of the feudal nobility
- Creation of permanent standing armies
- Unification of laws
- Centralized tax collection
- Establishment of an administrative system
- Development of diplomacy
Early Modern Nation-States
Portugal, England, France, and Spain were among the first modern nation-states.
The Catholic Monarchs of Spain
The reign of the Catholic Monarchs, Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon, began in 1469.
Internal Policies
- Subdued the nobility
- Controlled municipalities through magistrates
- Created the Holy Brotherhood for maintaining security
- Reformed royal councils
- Established courts of audience
- Formed a permanent army
- Unified the territory
- Unified religion through the Court of the Inquisition
External Policies
- Developed political marriages for their children
- Conquered territories in North Africa (Melilla in 1497, Algiers in 1509, Oran and Tripoli in 1510)
- Reclaimed the Kingdom of Naples from France
- Supported geographical expeditions
The Age of Exploration
Portuguese Discoveries
Madeira, Azores, Cape Verde
Spanish Discoveries
Christopher Columbus’s voyage to America (1492)
Causes of Exploration
- The need for a new route to Asia
- Technical and scientific advancements
- The pursuit of wealth
Cultures of the New World
The Spanish encountered the indigenous peoples of the Antilles, including the Aztecs, Maya, and Incas.
The Aztecs
The Aztecs, with their capital city of Tenochtitlan and temple of Quetzalcoatl, were defeated by Hernán Cortés in 1519 during the reign of Moctezuma II.
The Maya
The Maya, known for their Chichen Itza temple and hieroglyphic writing, occupied the Yucatán Peninsula. Their territory was reduced by the Spanish, but some resisted until the late 18th century.
The Incas
The Incas, ruled by the Sapa Inca (considered the son of the sun), had their capital at Cuzco. Known for their roads and Machu Picchu, they were conquered by Francisco Pizarro in 1532. Atahualpa, the reigning Inca, was captured and executed.
Conquest and Colonization of America
The Spanish rapidly conquered the Antilles, followed by the Aztec, Maya, and Inca empires. By 1550, they occupied much of North America, including Mexico, Florida, Texas, and California.
Spanish Colonial Administration
The House of Trade, the Council of the Indies, and the viceroyalty system were implemented under Charles I of the Habsburg dynasty (1516-1556) and continued under his son, Philip II (1556-1598).
The Reigns of Charles I and Philip II
Charles I (1516-1556)
- Faced the Revolt of the Comuneros (1520-1521), culminating in the Battle of Villalar
- Confronted the Revolt of the Germanías in Valencia and Mallorca
- Engaged in wars against France, the Turks, and the Protestants
Philip II (1556-1598)
- Expanded the Habsburg empire, adding the Philippine Islands and Portugal
- Faced the Morisco Revolt in Granada and a revolt in Aragon
- Defeated the Ottoman Turks at the Battle of Lepanto (1571)
- Fought against France, including the Battle of St. Quentin (1557)
Economy and Society in the 16th Century
Cottage Industry
The cottage industry flourished, with bourgeois providing raw materials to workers who used their own machines for weaving, spinning, and other crafts.
Trade
Trade expanded significantly, particularly with the Americas. New techniques included bills of exchange, banks, and joint-stock companies. Fleets were protected from pirates from England, France, and Holland.
Social Structure
- The monarchy was supported by the gentry.
- The nobility became increasingly tied to the court.
- The bourgeoisie was divided into upper and lower classes.
- The peasantry saw little improvement in their economic situation.
The Reformation and Counter-Reformation
The Protestant Reformation
Martin Luther initiated the Protestant Reformation, criticizing the sale of indulgences and emphasizing salvation through faith.
The Catholic Counter-Reformation
In response to the Protestant Reformation, the Catholic Church underwent internal reforms, culminating in the Council of Trent (1545-1563), which defined Catholic doctrine.
Renaissance Art
Architecture
Key figures included Brunelleschi (Florence Cathedral), Alberti (Santa Maria Novella), Bramante (St. Peter’s Basilica), and Michelangelo.
Sculpture
Donatello and Michelangelo were prominent sculptors, striving for ideal beauty and perfection.
Painting
Painters like Fra Angelico, Masaccio, Piero della Francesca, Botticelli, Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, and Michelangelo achieved depth and volume using perspective, fresco, and oil paints.
Renaissance Art in Spain
Spanish Renaissance architecture featured Plateresque, Classical, and Herreran styles (e.g., El Escorial). Alonso Berruguete excelled in sculpture, and El Greco was a prominent painter.