Rise of the Spanish Monarchy: Unification, Expansion, and Consolidation of Power
The Unification of Spain
Ferdinand and Isabella, the Catholic Monarchs, prioritized the territorial unification of the Spanish kingdoms to create a powerful state capable of expanding beyond the Iberian Peninsula. Castile, with Aragon’s support, launched a final campaign against the Muslim Kingdom of Granada, annexing it in 1492 after a ten-year conflict. Queen Isabella spearheaded the conquest, while the nobility engaged in warfare. A series of sieges led to the fall of Malaga in 1487 and Almeria in 1489. In 1492, Granada’s last king, Boabdil, surrendered the city. Favorable terms allowed approximately half the population to retain their religion and customs, while others, including Boabdil, chose to relocate to Africa. Following Queen Isabella of Navarra’s death, Ferdinand, already regent of Castile, incorporated Navarra into the kingdom in 1515, though it retained its autonomy and institutions.
Foreign Policy and Expansion
The Catholic Monarchs focused heavily on foreign policy. Castile’s interests lay in the Atlantic, while Aragon’s were in the Mediterranean. They pursued a strategic marriage policy, forming alliances with various European kingdoms. Their daughter Joanna, known as “Juana la Loca,” married Philip the Fair, son of Maximilian I of the Holy Roman Empire. Catherine of Aragon married the future King Henry VIII of England. Treaties and marriages also connected them with Portugal. Their daughters Isabella and Maria married King Manuel I of Portugal. Maria’s son, Miguel da Paz, briefly became heir to both the Portuguese and Spanish crowns but died in 1502 at the age of two.
Ferdinand regained Roussillon and Cerdanya from France through the Treaty of Barcelona (1493). He built a powerful army, consolidating control over Naples in 1504, a victory led by Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba, known as “El Gran Capitán.” From 1505 onward, to counter Muslim forces and support traders, Ferdinand conquered much of North Africa, consolidating the Mediterranean region. This included the Canary Islands, known since Phoenician and Roman times but previously unconquered.
Conquest of the Canary Islands
The Guanches, inhabitants of the Canary Islands, were transitioning from the Neolithic period when Castile began its conquest in 1404. Divided into tribes led by warrior chiefs, they relied on hunting, gathering, and agriculture. They practiced mummification and proved formidable adversaries. Castile finally subdued them in 1494, completing control with the conquest of Tenerife in 1496. The Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) divided Castile’s and Portugal’s spheres of influence along a meridian in the Atlantic.
Consolidation of Royal Power
The Rise of Councils
Territorial expansion alone was insufficient. The monarchs needed to control the powerful nobility and clergy. They achieved a military victory against noble and ecclesiastical lords at Toro in 1476. They recovered royal lands but guaranteed the aristocracy and church their power and influence in exchange for political submission. The Laws of Toro (1505) further consolidated the nobility’s landholdings through widespread use of mayorazgo (entail).
To assert their authority, the monarchs created a standing army and a dedicated body for foreign affairs. Magistrates, appointed by the crown, held significant power in towns and cities, presiding over municipalities and judicial functions. The Holy Brotherhood, established in 1476, served as a police and judicial force. The Royal Council was reorganized, with secretaries introduced, and its importance grew, while the Cortes (parliament), especially in Castile, declined, primarily serving to grant funds to the king.
Judicial Reforms
The audiencia (high court) in Valladolid was reorganized, and new audiencias were created in Granada and Galicia. In the Crown of Aragon, traditional institutions and the Cortes retained political weight. The office of lieutenant was established, alongside the viceroy and Chief Justice. Catalonia and Valencia maintained their own institutions. The monarchs traveled throughout the kingdom, dispensing justice and reinforcing their authority.