Risk Factors & Protection in Victims of Terrorism & Sexual Assault
Risk Factors and Protection in Victims of Terrorism
Nature and Intensity of the Traumatic Event
The occurrence and severity of psychopathological consequences of an attack are directly related to the nature and intensity of the traumatic event. Terrorist acts that pose an immediate, sudden, and violent threat to life and physical integrity, and are unexpected, leaving the individual unprepared, have greater potential for harm. Examples include bombings or shootings at close range.
Factors of the Subject’s Personality
Pre-existing personality structure is a protective factor against traumatic events in general and the consequences of terrorist attacks in particular. Depending on the intensity and severity of the trauma, these factors can “mask” a delayed reaction that may be more severe than in those more vulnerable.
Prior Psychopathology and Family History
Genetic vulnerability to developing psychopathology in response to trauma is unsubstantiated. Family psychiatric history cannot accurately predict the appearance of psychopathological reactions in victims of terrorism. However, personal psychiatric history, especially abnormal personality traits and a history of anxiety and affective disorders, are considered risk factors.
Peri- and Post-Traumatic Life Events and Early Response to Trauma
Life events occurring before and after the attack increase the risk of psychological involvement and constitute a risk factor for both the appearance and severity/chronicity of psychopathological consequences.
Existence of a Proper Social Network and Consistent Support in the Community
The greatest protective factor is the existence of a proper social network and expressed support for the victim. This is particularly important within the family and workplace and serves as a primary preventative tool. Support from the wider social environment is also crucial and can be a serious problem in cases where the terrorist group has substantial support within the community.
Sexual Assault Against Women: Marshall and Barbaree Model
This comprehensive model, particularly helpful in cases of rape and child molestation, includes the following:
Biological Aspects
- Similarity of neural and hormonal mediators responsible for sexual and aggressive behavior: Men face the challenge of learning to inhibit sexual assault, especially during puberty.
- Relative specificity of innate sexual drive: This forces us to learn to choose appropriate sexual partners for each age.
The Failure of Inhibition
Inhibitory controls against sexual assault are weak. Factors contributing to lower inhibitory learning in rapists include poor paternal educational models, harsh discipline, aggressive and alcoholic parents, and childhood physical and sexual abuse. These individuals may not develop concern for others’ needs and rights, leading to egocentrism and social deficits, explaining the inability to establish age-appropriate relationships.
Socio-Cultural Attitudes
Societies that enable violence and have negative attitudes toward women have higher rates of rape.
Pornography
Pornography exposure can upregulate activity leading to assault. While not all sex offenders use it to incite aggression, young people with poor socialization may be less resistant to its effects, particularly the message of power and dominance over weak and willing women.
Circumstances
Males who have failed to build strong inhibitions against sexual aggression may be more likely to commit assault under certain circumstances, such as alcohol intoxication, anger, prolonged stress, or prior sexual arousal.
Cognitive Distortions
These are ways of constructing reality that help overcome internal controls against sexual assault. Anything that rationalizes the assault facilitates it.
Appropriate Circumstances
This refers to the availability of a woman or child to victimize, with no apparent risks of detection or punishment. According to the authors, after the first attack, subsequent crimes become easier due to desensitization.