Roman Civilization: From Monarchy to the Fall of an Empire
**Rome: From Monarchy to the Fall of an Empire**
The main feature of the Roman way of life was its tendency toward action. While for the Greeks, critical theory, the logos, was paramount, for the Romans, the practical ability to solve specific problems was essential. Hence, the great contribution of the Romans was law, which is an applied science to the resolution of conflicts and not an approach to major theoretical issues. In short, the history of Rome, which lasted more than a millennium, is the story of the universal expansion of the city, the civitas, driven by the will to power and organized by jus (by law).
Four Major Stages of Roman History
The history of Rome is divided into four major stages:
- Stage 1: The Monarchy (753 BC – 509 BC)
- Stage 2: The Republic (509 BC – 31 BC)
- Stage 3: The Principality (Augustus) (31 BC – 14 AD)
- Stage 4: The Empire (14 AD – 476 AD)
When the Western Roman Empire fell in the year 476 AD to the Germanic peoples, the ancient era ended, and the Middle Ages began.
The Principality and the Fall of the Western Roman Empire
The Principality continued long after the death of Augustus, and thereafter began a final stage based on the absolute power of the emperor. The end of the Roman Empire refers to the end of the Western Roman Empire. For 100 years before, it had been split into two: the West, with its capital in Rome (although in practice, rather in Milan), and the East, with its capital in Constantinople. The Eastern Roman Empire, Byzantium, lasted 1,000 years, until the fall of Byzantium in 1453.
The Monarchy: Origins and the Law of the 12 Tables
The Monarchy in Rome had nothing special. A number of villages around the Tiber River were governed by a king, rather controlled by the heads of large families, and he had a more symbolic and religious power than truly political. All ancient cities first had this type of organization. In this case, it is interesting that there was an important legal rule, called the Law of the 12 Tables. Over time, there was an attempt by the kings to exercise a stronger power, which led to a rebellion that gave way to the Republic.
The Republic: Sociological and Political Currents
The Republic was influenced during the long historical period by two major currents: a sociological one and a political one.
Sociological Current: Patricians vs. Plebeians
Sociologically, there was a confrontation between patricians (aristocracy) and plebeians. Some other features of citizenship. This confrontation was ongoing and generated civil wars. But overall, the practicality of the Romans was expressed in the search for agreements and commitments, allowing them to dedicate efforts to foreign conquests that benefited both.
Political Current: Rise to International Power
The second element is that Rome, during the Republic, became the only international power, especially when it defeated Carthage in the Punic Wars. Rome was then extended throughout the known world, which was, in short, the Mediterranean world. The Roman world was separated from the barbarian world because the limit was controlled by the limes.
The Political System of the Roman Republic
The political system of the Roman Republic was apparently a mixed form of government. It was a system of checks and balances, both social and political, but in reality, it was an aristocratic rule, and real power was exercised by the Senate, which was the Assembly of Patricians (hereditary character). The Senate made major decisions and appointed the most important judges, who were the consuls. There were two consuls, and they were the real political and military leaders of Rome. There was also another series of political positions, such as the magistrates (who administered justice), the censors (who made a census of citizens), and the selectmen (in charge of city government).
There were also popular assemblies called Comitia, of various kinds, which formed a very complicated structure, but always on a census-based system, meaning that the rights and obligations of citizens were directly related to the payment of taxes and military intervention.
There was also a tribune of the people, who had veto power on all matters that might be detrimental to the plebeian class.
Finally, there was the dictator, who was a judge appointed in circumstances of danger, given power for up to six months in order to restore normalcy.